Q. No. 2: What are the fundamental differences between Gender Studies and Women's Studies? Substantiate your argument(s) with examples. Highlight the current status of Women’s Studies in Pakistan.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Definition and Scope of Women’s Studies
- Definition and Scope of Gender Studies
- Fundamental Differences Between Women’s Studies and Gender Studies
- Table: Key Differences Between Women’s Studies and Gender Studies
- Examples from Academic, Policy, and Social Spheres
- Current Status of Women’s Studies in Pakistan
- Challenges and the Way Forward
- Conclusion
- Introduction
As the global struggle for gender equality has evolved, so too has the academic inquiry into it. Women’s Studies and Gender Studies are two major fields that emerged to address the marginalization, exploitation, and invisibility of women and gender minorities in mainstream knowledge systems. While often used interchangeably, these fields differ in origin, scope, theoretical foundations, and inclusivity. Understanding the distinction is crucial for crafting effective gender policies and academic programs, particularly in countries like Pakistan, where gender justice is still in its formative stages.
- Definition and Scope of Women’s Studies
Women’s Studies emerged during the second wave of feminism (1960s–70s) as a response to the absence of women’s voices in academic curricula, history, literature, politics, and science. It focuses on:
- Historical exclusion of women
- Women’s contributions in social, economic, and political life
- Patriarchy as the central axis of oppression
Women’s Studies is woman-centered and aims to reclaim space for women in knowledge production and political discourse.
- Definition and Scope of Gender Studies
Gender Studies emerged later, in the 1990s, shaped by postmodern and intersectional feminist theory. It views gender as a social construct and examines:
- Masculinity and femininity as products of cultural, social, and political forces
- The interplay of gender with race, class, religion, sexuality
- LGBTQ+ identities, queer theory, and non-binary frameworks
Gender Studies is more inclusive than Women’s Studies, analyzing gender relations and power dynamics rather than focusing solely on women.
- Fundamental Differences Between Women’s Studies and Gender Studies
- Theoretical Orientation
- Women’s Studies adopts radical and liberal feminist frameworks centered on women’s oppression.
- Gender Studies includes post-structuralist and queer theory, questioning binary definitions of gender.
- Analytical Focus
- Women’s Studies focuses on women’s experiences, issues, and history.
- Gender Studies explores all gender identities and the societal structures that shape them.
- Inclusivity
- Women’s Studies is woman-focused.
- Gender Studies is inclusive of men, trans, and non-binary individuals.
- Intersectionality
- While Women’s Studies often focuses on sex-based oppression, Gender Studies emphasizes intersectionality (Crenshaw)—how gender intersects with other identities.
📊 Table: Key Differences Between Women’s Studies and Gender Studies
Aspect | Women’s Studies | Gender Studies |
Origin | 1960s–70s, second-wave feminism | 1990s, postmodern feminist thought |
Focus | Women’s experiences, issues, and history | Gender roles, identities, and relational structures |
Approach | Women-centered | Inclusive of all genders and sexualities |
Key Concepts | Patriarchy, oppression, empowerment | Social construction, fluidity, intersectionality |
Inclusion of LGBTQ+ | Minimal | Central and explicit |
Examples in Academia | Recovering women’s history | Studying masculinity, queer theory, trans identities |
- Examples from Academic, Policy, and Social Spheres
- Academic Example: A Women’s Studies course may analyze the role of women in anti-colonial movements, while a Gender Studies course may examine how masculinity influenced militarism in the same period.
- Policy Example: Women’s Studies might advocate for quotas for women in parliament, whereas Gender Studies might push for inclusive gender policies that address transgender rights and male mental health.
- Social Example: Movements like Aurat March (Pakistan) are inspired by Women’s Studies. Campaigns for trans visibility, body autonomy, and fluid gender expression stem from Gender Studies.
- Current Status of Women’s Studies in Pakistan
- Institutional Development
- Women’s Studies centers were first established in the 1980s and 1990s, with support from UNESCO and UN Women.
- Key institutions include:
- University of Karachi
- Punjab University
- Quaid-i-Azam University
- Fatima Jinnah Women University
- Curricular Gaps
- Programs often lack faculty specialization, research funding, and updated syllabi.
- Courses tend to lean more toward Women’s Studies than Gender Studies, reflecting cultural resistance to broader gender discourse.
- Research and Outreach
- Despite limitations, women’s studies departments have produced significant research on gender-based violence, women’s labor rights, and education gaps.
- Many graduates work in NGOs, development sectors, and gender units of government departments.
- Challenges and the Way Forward
- Conservative resistance to the perceived “Western” nature of Gender Studies
- Low enrollment due to lack of career pathways and academic recognition
- Absence of interdisciplinary integration with law, media, health, and economics
Recommendations:
- Revise curricula to include both Women’s and Gender Studies frameworks
- Integrate gender content into other disciplines (GAD approach)
- Build public-private partnerships to link academic work with policymaking
- Promote research grants and conferences to globalize Pakistani gender scholarship
- Conclusion
Women’s Studies and Gender Studies are interrelated yet distinct. While Women’s Studies laid the groundwork by highlighting women’s oppression and agency, Gender Studies expanded the lens to include power, identity, intersectionality, and fluidity. In Pakistan, both are needed: Women’s Studies to highlight specific cultural oppressions, and Gender Studies to broaden inclusion and deepen critique. Promoting both fields—academically and institutionally—is crucial to achieve gender justice, equality, and democratic transformation.
Q. No. 3: Write a comprehensive essay on the ‘sex versus gender debate’ in feminist philosophy and social sciences, reflecting the nature versus nurture argument.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Defining Sex and Gender
- Historical Roots of the Sex vs. Gender Debate
- The Nature vs. Nurture Argument
- Feminist Philosophical Contributions
- Simone de Beauvoir
- Judith Butler
- Poststructuralist and Queer Theories
- Table: Comparison of Sex vs. Gender
- Contemporary Relevance in Social Sciences
- Implications for Policy, Rights, and Activism
- Conclusion
- Introduction
The distinction between sex and gender lies at the heart of feminist theory and social science inquiry. While sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, gender is understood as the socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities assigned to people. The sex versus gender debate also reflects the long-standing philosophical dispute between nature and nurture, exploring whether human behavior is primarily biologically determined or socially constructed. This essay explores the evolution of this debate in feminist thought, the influence of social science theories, and its real-world implications.
- Defining Sex and Gender
- Sex: Refers to biological characteristics such as chromosomes (XX or XY), reproductive organs, and secondary sexual traits.
- Gender: Refers to the social, cultural, and psychological traits associated with being male, female, or non-binary—such as roles, clothing, labor division, and emotional expectations.
Thus, while sex is assigned at birth, gender is performed, learned, and regulated through societal norms and institutions.
- Historical Roots of the Sex vs. Gender Debate
The distinction began gaining academic attention during the second wave of feminism (1960s–1980s). Feminist theorists emphasized that:
“Biology is not destiny” – Women were oppressed not because of their sex, but due to social constructs of femininity.
Early sexologists and psychologists had pathologized female difference, but feminists redefined the narrative, showing how gender identity is imposed rather than innate.
- The Nature vs. Nurture Argument
- Nature perspective (essentialist view):
- Holds that biological sex determines behavior and abilities.
- Prominent in evolutionary psychology and conservative ideology.
- Critics argue it naturalizes patriarchy.
- Nurture perspective (constructivist view):
- Emphasizes that gender roles are shaped by environment, culture, education, and socialization.
- Supported by sociologists, feminists, and anthropologists.
✅ Example: Boys are not inherently aggressive, but are socialized through toys, media, and school to value dominance.
- Feminist Philosophical Contributions
- Simone de Beauvoir – Existential Feminism
In The Second Sex (1949), she wrote:
“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman.”
She argued that womanhood is constructed through centuries of patriarchal systems and social expectations. Gender is a historical process, not a natural fact.
- Judith Butler – Performativity and Queer Theory
In Gender Trouble (1990), Butler argued that:
Gender is not what one is, but what one does—a performance.
She introduced the idea of gender performativity—daily acts, dress, and speech construct the illusion of stable gender. This theory challenges both biological essentialism and static identity categories.
- Poststructuralist and Queer Theories
- Michel Foucault and postmodern thinkers rejected the binary categorization of sex/gender.
- Queer theory questions the rigid alignment of sex, gender, and sexuality.
- Intersex and transgender individuals further challenge the sex/gender binary.
📊 Table: Comparison of Sex vs. Gender
Category | Sex | Gender |
Definition | Biological classification (male/female) | Social and cultural roles (masculine/feminine) |
Basis | Anatomy, chromosomes, hormones | Social norms, upbringing, identity, institutions |
Deterministic? | Traditionally seen as fixed | Fluid, contextual, and performative |
Example | XX and XY chromosomes | Wearing hijab or makeup, becoming a “provider” |
Changeable? | Largely stable but medically mutable | Continuously shaped and reshaped through life |
Debates involved | Essentialism, biological determinism | Social constructivism, performativity, intersectionality |
- Contemporary Relevance in Social Sciences
Social sciences now increasingly adopt gender-sensitive frameworks:
- Sociology studies gender roles in institutions (family, education, media).
- Anthropology explores gender fluidity across cultures (e.g., Hijras in South Asia, Two-Spirit people in Native American cultures).
- Psychology investigates gender identity development in childhood and adolescence.
- Development Studies analyze how gender inequality shapes poverty, health, and education outcomes.
- Implications for Policy, Rights, and Activism
Understanding the sex/gender distinction has shaped:
- Gender-affirming healthcare and legal protections for trans people
- Gender mainstreaming in development programs
- Laws against gender-based violence, which recognize structural and cultural violence—not just physical
- Feminist activism that addresses intersecting oppressions, not just those based on sex
In Pakistan, while sex-based laws exist (like reproductive laws), gender identity rights gained visibility through the Transgender Persons Act (2018), though implementation remains weak.
- Conclusion
The sex versus gender debate has been crucial in reshaping modern thought about identity, rights, and equality. Feminist philosophy and social sciences have demonstrated that gender is not biologically predetermined, but socially constructed and historically situated. The nature vs. nurture argument has largely tilted in favor of social constructivism, supported by real-world examples of gender diversity across cultures. Embracing this understanding is vital to dismantling patriarchal structures, achieving inclusive policy, and promoting gender justice for all.
Q. No. 3: Write a comprehensive essay on the ‘sex versus gender debate’ in feminist philosophy and social scienceQ. No. 4: What type(s) of feminism can elevate the socio-cultural, economic, and political status of women in Pakistan?s, reflecting the nature versus nurture argument.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Defining Feminism and Its Relevance in Pakistan
- Feminist Theories and Their Applicability to Pakistan
- Liberal Feminism
- Islamic Feminism
- Socialist/Marxist Feminism
- Postcolonial Feminism
- Intersectional Feminism
- Table: Comparative Analysis of Feminist Theories and Their Impact Areas in Pakistan
- Challenges in Applying Feminist Frameworks
- The Need for a Hybrid, Context-Sensitive Feminism
- Conclusion
- Introduction
In Pakistan, where women face systemic discrimination in education, employment, healthcare, law, and politics, feminism is not merely a theoretical concern—it is a tool for empowerment and social transformation. Yet, given the country’s religio-cultural sensitivities, class divisions, and political instability, not all feminist frameworks are equally effective. This essay examines which types of feminism are best suited to elevate the socio-cultural, economic, and political status of women in Pakistan, arguing for a hybrid model tailored to local realities.
- Defining Feminism and Its Relevance in Pakistan
Feminism is the belief in and movement toward gender equality in all areas of life—social, economic, cultural, and political. In Pakistan, feminism has often been misrepresented as Western, anti-Islamic, or immoral, but in truth, it offers a critical lens to question power, gender roles, and patriarchy—all of which are deeply embedded in Pakistani society.
- Feminist Theories and Their Applicability to Pakistan
🔹 a. Liberal Feminism
Core Ideas:
- Advocates for equal rights, legal reform, and equal opportunities in education, employment, and politics.
Impact Potential in Pakistan:
- Promotes women’s access to public offices, quotas, education, and legal protection.
- Influences laws like the Protection Against Harassment Act (2010) and Domestic Violence Acts.
Limitation:
- Often benefits urban, educated women, with limited reach in rural or tribal areas.
🔹 b. Islamic Feminism
Core Ideas:
- Seeks gender justice within the framework of Islamic teachings.
- Reinterprets the Quran from a woman-centric lens.
Impact Potential in Pakistan:
- Can counter conservative narratives using religious legitimacy.
- Supports women’s access to education, inheritance, and leadership, citing Quranic verses and Hadith.
Example:
- Advocacy for Khula (right to divorce) and women-led prayer spaces.
Limitation:
- Still debated within clerical circles and lacks state support for reinterpretation.
🔹 c. Socialist/Marxist Feminism
Core Ideas:
- Focuses on the intersection of class and gender.
- Highlights how capitalism exploits women’s unpaid labor and reinforces inequality.
Impact Potential in Pakistan:
- Crucial in understanding rural women’s role in agriculture, home-based work, and labor exploitation.
- Encourages collective bargaining, unionization, and state welfare policies.
Limitation:
- Often ignored in elite-dominated feminist spaces, and stigmatized due to ideological bias.
🔹 d. Postcolonial Feminism
Core Ideas:
- Critiques Western feminist models for ignoring the specific colonial and cultural histories of the Global South.
- Advocates for a localized, culturally relevant feminism.
Impact Potential in Pakistan:
- Resists the imposition of Western feminist values.
- Helps build a feminist movement rooted in Pakistani languages, cultures, and struggles.
Limitation:
- Sometimes lacks a clear framework for policy or legal change.
🔹 e. Intersectional Feminism
Core Ideas:
- Developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw, this theory highlights how gender intersects with class, race, ethnicity, religion, and ability.
Impact Potential in Pakistan:
- Recognizes that not all women face the same type of oppression.
- Advocates for the inclusion of transgender persons, minority women, and disabled women.
Example:
- Supports the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018 and rural women’s labor rights.
📊 Table: Comparative Analysis of Feminist Theories and Their Impact Areas in Pakistan
Feminist Type | Focus | Potential Impact Area | Best Suited For |
Liberal Feminism | Legal reform, equal rights | Political quotas, workplace rights | Urban, professional women |
Islamic Feminism | Gender justice in Islam | Religious reinterpretation, legal advocacy | Traditional and religious communities |
Socialist Feminism | Class and labor exploitation | Informal economy, unpaid labor | Rural and working-class women |
Postcolonial Feminism | Cultural context, anti-imperialism | Feminist narrative building | Indigenous scholars and activists |
Intersectional Feminism | Intersecting identities | Inclusive policies, minority rights | Marginalized and diverse communities |
- Challenges in Applying Feminist Frameworks in Pakistan
- Misrepresentation and backlash from conservative media and clerics
- Elite capture of feminist spaces limits grassroots inclusivity
- Resistance from male-dominated political parties and tribal authorities
- Fragmentation within feminist circles, with ideological divides undermining unity
- The Need for a Hybrid, Context-Sensitive Feminism
A blended model—rooted in Islamic ethics, economic justice, cultural relevance, and inclusive rights—is best suited for Pakistan. This approach would:
- Use Islamic feminism to gain religious legitimacy
- Apply liberal feminist principles for policy reform
- Leverage socialist feminism to uplift working-class women
- Employ intersectionality to ensure no one is left behind
- Resist colonial narratives while promoting indigenous gender justice
- Conclusion
No single brand of feminism can fully address the multifaceted oppression faced by women in Pakistan. A successful feminist approach must be strategically hybrid—balancing liberal reforms, religious reinterpretation, class consciousness, and intersectional inclusion. Only through such a localized and inclusive framework can feminism elevate the socio-cultural, economic, and political status of women and lead Pakistan toward a more just, equitable, and democratic society.
Q. No. 5: What are the reasons responsible for ranking Pakistan as the second-worst country in the world for gender inequality despite Pakistan’s commitment to many international conventions and strong commitment to gender equality in the 1973 Constitution?
Outline:
- Introduction
- Constitutional and International Commitments to Gender Equality
- Gender Inequality Rankings: An Overview
- Root Causes of Pakistan’s Poor Gender Equality Record
- Legal and Institutional Weaknesses
- Socio-Cultural Patriarchy
- Economic Dependency and Labor Disparity
- Political Underrepresentation
- Education and Health Gaps
- Table: Causes of Gender Inequality vs. Pakistan’s Global Ranking
- Implementation Gaps in International and National Frameworks
- Way Forward: From Paper to Practice
- Conclusion
- Introduction
Pakistan has long expressed its formal commitment to gender equality, enshrined in its 1973 Constitution and endorsed through international conventions like CEDAW, ICCPR, and SDG Goal 5. Yet, paradoxically, Pakistan consistently ranks among the lowest countries in the Global Gender Gap Index, placing 145 out of 146 countries in 2023 (World Economic Forum). This glaring contradiction reflects a fundamental gap between commitment and implementation, driven by systemic, structural, and cultural failures.
- Constitutional and International Commitments to Gender Equality
- Article 25 (2) of the 1973 Constitution guarantees equality before law and prohibits gender-based discrimination.
- Article 34 ensures women’s full participation in national life.
- Pakistan is a signatory to:
- CEDAW (1996) – Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
- Beijing Platform for Action (1995)
- Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 5: Gender Equality
Despite these, women in Pakistan face rampant discrimination, violence, and marginalization in nearly every sector.
- Gender Inequality Rankings: An Overview
According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2023 (World Economic Forum):
- Pakistan ranks 145 out of 146 countries
- Female labor force participation: ~23%
- Female literacy rate: ~53% (compared to ~71% for men)
- Women in parliament: ~20% (mostly on reserved seats)
These statistics indicate deep-rooted structural gender inequality, especially in education, health, economic participation, and political empowerment.
- Root Causes of Pakistan’s Poor Gender Equality Record
🔹 a. Weak Legal Enforcement and Institutional Failure
- Laws exist (e.g., Protection Against Harassment Act, Domestic Violence Acts, Transgender Rights Act) but suffer from poor enforcement.
- Police and judiciary lack gender sensitization, often re-victimizing survivors.
- Local bodies and courts rarely prioritize gender-related cases.
🔹 b. Patriarchal Socio-Cultural Norms
- Deep-seated patriarchy normalizes gender-based violence, domestic abuse, and honor killings.
- Child marriages, purdah restrictions, and gender roles limit women’s autonomy.
- Women’s identity still tied to family honor and male guardianship.
🔹 c. Economic Dependency and Labor Disparity
- Women make up less than 25% of the formal labor force.
- Majority work in unpaid domestic or agricultural labor, without legal protection or recognition.
- Inheritance and property rights are often denied despite Islamic and constitutional safeguards.
🔹 d. Political Underrepresentation
- While women hold 17% of seats due to quotas, they rarely contest general seats or hold leadership positions.
- Political parties use women as token representatives.
- Grassroots-level participation is discouraged in tribal and conservative regions.
🔹 e. Education and Health Disparities
- Low female enrollment, especially in rural Balochistan, KP, and southern Punjab.
- High dropout rates due to poverty, harassment, and early marriage.
- Poor access to maternal healthcare, family planning, and mental health services.
📊 Table: Causes of Gender Inequality vs. Pakistan’s Global Ranking
Category | Pakistan’s Condition | Impact on Global Ranking |
Legal Framework | Present but weak enforcement | Fails to protect and empower women |
Labor Force | <25% female participation, mostly informal | Reduces economic empowerment ranking |
Education | Female literacy ~53%, dropout rates high | Weakens educational attainment index |
Politics | Mostly symbolic representation | Low on political empowerment score |
Violence Against Women | High prevalence of GBV, honor crimes, acid attacks | Impacts safety and opportunity indices |
Social Norms | Deeply patriarchal, gendered division of roles | Limits mobility and access |
- Implementation Gaps in International and National Frameworks
Despite legal frameworks and global commitments, failures include:
- Policy disconnection between federal and provincial gender departments
- Lack of political will and bureaucratic apathy
- Insufficient gender-disaggregated data for effective monitoring
- Lack of funding and trained personnel in gender units
- Elite capture of feminist spaces, ignoring marginalized women
- Way Forward: From Paper to Practice
To translate commitments into action, Pakistan must:
- Strengthen Implementation Mechanisms
- Train police, judiciary, and civil servants in gender-sensitive approaches
- Establish independent gender commissions with prosecutorial power
- Mainstream Gender in All Sectors
- Integrate gender into education, budgeting, and policymaking
- Invest in Women’s Economic Empowerment
- Support vocational training, credit access, and entrepreneurship programs
- Promote Women’s Political Leadership
- Enforce party-level quotas and leadership development programs
- Community-Level Awareness and Engagement
- Use media, religious leaders, and local influencers to challenge harmful gender norms
- Conclusion
Pakistan’s dismal gender inequality ranking is not due to a lack of commitment on paper, but due to institutional inertia, patriarchal culture, and socio-economic exclusion. Bridging the gap between constitutional promises and lived realities requires a holistic, sustained, and intersectional effort—one that recognizes women not as passive recipients of rights, but as active agents of development, governance, and change. Without addressing these foundational barriers, gender equality in Pakistan will remain a constitutional ideal rather than a lived experience.
Q. No. 6: In the last two decades, globalization has had a huge impact on the lives of women in developing nations, including Pakistan. What are the impacts of global political economy on Pakistani women?
Outline:
- Introduction
- Understanding the Global Political Economy
- Overview: Globalization and Women in Developing Nations
- Positive Impacts of Global Political Economy on Pakistani Women
- Employment and Entrepreneurship
- Digital and Educational Access
- Global Feminist Movements and Awareness
- Negative Impacts of Global Political Economy on Pakistani Women
- Labor Exploitation and Informality
- Commodification and Cultural Invasion
- Economic Inequality and Class Disparities
- Table: Positive vs. Negative Impacts of Globalization on Pakistani Women
- Case Examples from Pakistan
- Policy Recommendations for Inclusive Globalization
- Conclusion
- Introduction
In the era of globalization, the movement of capital, labor, ideas, and institutions has reshaped the socioeconomic fabric of developing nations. Women, once confined to domestic spaces, have found new opportunities—but also new forms of oppression—within the framework of the global political economy. In Pakistan, globalization’s influence on women is double-edged: while it has improved access to jobs, information, and rights discourse, it has also widened inequality, deepened exploitation, and created tensions between tradition and modernity.
- Understanding the Global Political Economy
The global political economy (GPE) refers to the interplay of global trade, finance, labor, and governance, shaped by institutions like the IMF, World Bank, WTO, and multinational corporations. It is closely tied to neoliberalism, promoting free markets, privatization, and reduced state intervention—which affect gender roles in production, consumption, and governance.
- Overview: Globalization and Women in Developing Nations
In developing countries, globalization has:
- Created low-wage labor opportunities for women in textiles, agriculture, and services
- Exposed women to transnational feminist movements
- Simultaneously entrenched new forms of economic, digital, and cultural dependency
Pakistani women are no exception, as seen in shifts in employment, education, activism, and social visibility.
- Positive Impacts of Global Political Economy on Pakistani Women
🔹 a. Employment and Entrepreneurship Opportunities
- Global value chains (GVCs) have allowed women to enter:
- Garment factories, call centers, microfinance institutions
- Freelance platforms (e.g., Upwork, Fiverr), especially in IT and content writing
- Rise in women-led SMEs, backed by donor-funded projects (e.g., USAID women entrepreneurship programs)
🔹 b. Digital Empowerment and Educational Access
- Online learning platforms, e-commerce, and mobile banking empower women from remote regions
- Initiatives like Sehat Kahani (women doctors via telemedicine) and Taleemabad enhance education and health services
- Global feminist campaigns (e.g., #MeToo, Aurat March) have gained visibility via digital globalization
🔹 c. Cultural and Legal Awareness
- Exposure to global human rights norms has pushed for:
- Anti-harassment laws (2010, 2022)
- Transgender Persons Act (2018)
- Participation in UN Women, CEDAW compliance reports
- Negative Impacts of Global Political Economy on Pakistani Women
🔹 a. Labor Exploitation and Informality
- Women employed in export-oriented sectors (e.g., textiles) often face:
- Long hours, low wages, lack of social protection
- No maternity leave or workplace safety
- Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) by IMF/World Bank cut social spending, burdening women with unpaid care work
🔹 b. Cultural Commodification and Moral Panic
- Media globalization promotes Western consumerism, beauty standards, and gender roles that clash with local norms
- Leads to resistance and backlash from conservative forces, e.g., attacks on Aurat March slogans
🔹 c. Rising Inequality and Class Divide
- Globalization benefits urban, elite women, leaving rural and poor women further marginalized
- Increase in urban-rural gender digital divide
- Migration and remittances empower some, but displace others from traditional livelihoods
📊 Table: Positive vs. Negative Impacts of Globalization on Pakistani Women
Area | Positive Impact | Negative Impact |
Employment | Entry into global job markets, freelance economy | Low wages, informalization, labor exploitation |
Education & Tech | Online learning, e-health, financial inclusion | Digital divide, urban bias |
Law & Rights | New protections, global rights discourse | Weak implementation, elite capture |
Culture | Exposure to feminist movements, creative expression | Commodification, backlash against perceived Westernization |
Economy | Women-led businesses, microfinance access | Debt traps, SAPs reduce public welfare programs |
- Case Examples from Pakistan
- Garment Industry in Punjab: Employs thousands of women but pays less than minimum wage, lacks labor union rights
- IT Freelancers: Women from cities like Lahore and Karachi earn foreign income via remote work platforms
- Aurat March & Digital Feminism: Increased visibility of feminist thought, but also sparked violent opposition from conservatives
- Policy Recommendations for Inclusive Globalization
- Gender-sensitive Labor Laws
- Mandate minimum wage, maternity leave, and safe workspaces in all global export sectors
- Bridging the Digital Divide
- Expand female digital literacy programs in rural areas
- Subsidize internet access and smart devices for low-income women
- Inclusive Global Trade Policies
- Ensure women’s voices in trade negotiations and export policy formulation
- Encourage female participation in global supply chains with ethical labor standards
- Protecting Cultural Integrity While Promoting Rights
- Promote contextual feminist narratives rooted in Pakistani values and languages
- Engage religious scholars in gender justice discourse to reduce backlash
- Social Protection for Informal Workers
- Include home-based workers and domestic workers in social security and pension schemes
- Conclusion
The global political economy has become both a catalyst for empowerment and a source of new gendered inequalities in Pakistan. While globalization offers women opportunities for visibility, employment, and advocacy, it also reinforces neoliberal exploitation, cultural tensions, and class disparities. For Pakistani women to benefit meaningfully from globalization, the state must adopt gender-just economic frameworks, strengthen labor protections, and ensure that global engagement does not come at the cost of local equity and cultural inclusion
Q. No. 7: Believing in the statement that “women cover half the sky,” do you think we need equal number of women in all spheres of public domain, especially in politics?
Outline:
- Introduction
- Unpacking the Statement: “Women Cover Half the Sky”
- The Case for Gender Parity in the Public Domain
- Importance of Women’s Equal Participation in Politics
- Current Status of Women’s Representation in Pakistan
- Global Trends and Lessons
- Table: Key Arguments for Gender Parity in Public and Political Spaces
- Challenges to Equal Representation in Pakistan
- Strategies to Ensure Gender-Inclusive Public Participation
- Conclusion
- Introduction
The famous Chinese proverb, “Women hold up half the sky,” popularized by Mao Zedong and later adopted by global feminist activists, emphasizes that society cannot progress without fully empowering women. Yet, across the world and especially in Pakistan, women are underrepresented in politics, law, media, and governance, despite being nearly 50% of the population. If democracy is to be truly representative, then equal participation of women is not a privilege—it is a democratic right and necessity.
- Unpacking the Statement: “Women Cover Half the Sky”
This statement implies that:
- Women are equal contributors to society’s survival and progress.
- Excluding women from public life is equivalent to disabling half of a society’s potential.
- Equal participation ensures balance, fairness, and social justice.
- The Case for Gender Parity in the Public Domain
Public domains include:
- Politics, administration, judiciary, media, education, military, and science.
- Without women’s equal involvement:
- Public policies ignore half the population’s needs
- Resource allocation remains biased
- Democracy becomes male-dominated and exclusionary
Equal numbers are not symbolic—they are essential for inclusive development and governance.
- Importance of Women’s Equal Participation in Politics
- Politics shapes laws, budgets, and leadership agendas
- Women bring perspectives on:
- Health, education, child welfare, domestic violence
- Conflict resolution and peacebuilding
- Empirical evidence shows that women-led governments are often less corrupt and more inclusive
“When women are at the table, the conversation changes.” — Madeleine Albright
- Current Status of Women’s Representation in Pakistan
- 17% reserved seats in National and Provincial Assemblies
- Only a handful of women contest general seats or become cabinet ministers
- Local bodies vary: Some provinces have up to 33% representation, others regress
- Female voter turnout is consistently lower in tribal and conservative areas due to mobility and security concerns
Barriers:
- Patriarchal political parties
- Gender-based violence and harassment
- Media misrepresentation
- Lack of resources and support for female candidates
- Global Trends and Lessons
- Rwanda has the highest women’s representation in parliament (~61%)
- Nordic countries maintain 40–50% parity due to mandatory gender quotas and cultural openness
- Countries like India have panchayat-level quotas, leading to better sanitation and education outcomes
Lesson: Quotas are necessary but not sufficient—they must be backed by party reforms, funding, and capacity-building.
📊 7. Table: Key Arguments for Gender Parity in Public and Political Spaces
Dimension | Why Equal Representation Matters |
Democracy | Equal participation upholds democratic legitimacy |
Policy Inclusiveness | Ensures women’s issues are addressed in laws and budgets |
Economic Growth | Women in leadership drive social investments and GDP growth |
Peace & Stability | Women leaders are more likely to foster dialogue and compromise |
Justice & Rights | Equal representation combats institutional sexism and bias |
- Challenges to Equal Representation in Pakistan
- Feudal and tribal control of politics
- Religious conservatism and gender norms that limit women’s roles to domestic spheres
- Political party structures that discourage women from rising beyond token roles
- Security threats, digital harassment, and lack of financial backing
Even educated urban women hesitate to enter politics due to the toxic environment, male chauvinism, and character assassination prevalent in public discourse.
- Strategies to Ensure Gender-Inclusive Public Participation
- Strengthen and Expand Quotas
- Mandate party-level nominations (not just seat allocation) of at least 33% women
- Political Training and Mentorship
- Establish leadership academies for aspiring female politicians, especially in rural areas
- Campaign Financing and Legal Protection
- Provide state-funded election support and legal aid for female candidates facing harassment
- Media Representation Reforms
- Train media to cover women leaders with professionalism and dignity, not sensationalism
- Education and Social Conditioning
- Promote civic education that dismantles gender stereotypes from a young age
- Engage Men as Allies
- Involve male leaders and communities in advocating for women’s leadership
- Conclusion
The idea that “women cover half the sky” is not just poetic—it is a political, economic, and moral truth. In Pakistan, failing to include women equally in all spheres of public life, especially politics, means forsaking half the talent, vision, and leadership required to build a just society. We don’t need women merely present in parliament—we need them empowered, visible, and equal. Only then can democracy become whole, representative, and transformative.
Q. No. 8: Write short notes on the following (10 marks each): (a) ‘Gender Strategic Needs’ and ‘Gender Practical Needs’ (b) APWA and WAF (c) Government Initiatives for Combating the Menace of Violence Against Women
(a) Gender Strategic Needs and Gender Practical Needs
These concepts were introduced by Caroline Moser, a development planner and feminist scholar, in the context of gender planning.
- Gender Practical Needs (GPNs):
These are the immediate, everyday needs that women (and sometimes men) identify within their traditional roles. These needs do not challenge existing gender roles, but aim to alleviate the hardships caused by them.
Examples:
- Access to clean water
- Childcare facilities
- Health clinics
- Income generation within the home
Relevance:
Addressing practical needs helps improve women’s conditions but not their position in society.
- Gender Strategic Needs (GSNs):
Strategic needs are related to long-term structural changes that aim to transform gender roles and power relations.
Examples:
- Legal rights (inheritance, divorce, child custody)
- Political representation
- Equal wages and employment rights
- Protection from gender-based violence
Relevance:
Meeting strategic needs leads to women’s empowerment and social justice by altering their subordinate status.
Key Difference:
Aspect | Practical Needs | Strategic Needs |
Purpose | Improve living conditions | Transform power structures |
Time Frame | Immediate, short-term | Long-term, systemic |
Role Reinforcement | Works within traditional gender roles | Challenges and changes traditional gender roles |
(b) APWA and WAF
- All Pakistan Women’s Association (APWA):
Founded in 1949 by Begum Ra’ana Liaquat Ali Khan, APWA is one of Pakistan’s oldest women’s welfare organizations.
Objectives:
- Promote women’s education, health, and welfare
- Provide skills training and legal aid
- Maintain a non-political stance while working closely with governments and international donors
Impact:
APWA has played a key role in raising awareness and establishing women’s vocational centers, schools, and medical services, especially during early nation-building phases.
- Women’s Action Forum (WAF):
Founded in 1981 during General Zia-ul-Haq’s military regime, WAF emerged as a radical feminist collective to resist:
- Hudood Ordinances
- Law of Evidence (Qanoon-e-Shahadat, 1984)
- State oppression and Islamization policies
Objectives:
- Promote women’s legal and political rights
- Advocate for secular democracy and gender justice
- Engage in protests, publications, and legal reform efforts
Impact:
WAF remains a key actor in urban feminist activism and is known for being outspoken, intersectional, and anti-authoritarian.
(c) Government Initiatives for Combating Violence Against Women
Pakistan has taken several legislative and institutional measures in recent years to combat gender-based violence (GBV). These include:
- Legal Reforms:
- Protection Against Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2010 & 2022)
- Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Acts – enacted in Sindh, Balochistan, and Islamabad
- Anti-Rape (Investigation and Trial) Act (2021) and Criminal Law (Amendment) Act for fast-track rape trials
- Punjab Protection of Women Against Violence Act (2016): Introduced the first Women Protection Centre in Multan
- Institutional Mechanisms:
- Establishment of Women Protection Centers, shelter homes (Dar-ul-Amans)
- Helplines like 1043 (Punjab) and 1099 (Federal) for legal aid and reporting
- Gender desks in police stations and special courts for gender-based violence cases
- Policy and Coordination Frameworks:
- National and Provincial Gender Equality Policies
- National Commission on the Status of Women (NCSW): Monitoring gender rights, policy advocacy
- Benazir Income Support Programme (BISP) now integrates gender-safety and empowerment indicators
Challenges:
Despite these steps, implementation remains weak, especially in rural areas, due to:
- Patriarchal policing
- Victim-blaming
- Underreporting and stigma