Q. No. 2. What is your position on the nature vs nurture debate in criminology?
Outline:
- Introduction
- Explanation of Nature and Nurture in Criminology
- Classical Theories Supporting Each Side
- Evidence from Contemporary Criminology
- Case Studies and Global Examples
- Position: An Integrated Bio-Social View
- Implications for Crime Control Policies
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
The nature vs nurture debate is a long-standing controversy in criminology. It seeks to determine whether genetic/biological factors (nature) or social/environmental influences (nurture) are more responsible for criminal behavior. While early criminology focused on either extreme, modern research supports a more integrated approach, recognizing that crime is a result of both biological predispositions and environmental shaping.
- Understanding Nature and Nurture in Criminology
Aspect | Description |
Nature | Criminal tendencies arise from genetics, brain chemistry, hormones, or physical traits |
Nurture | Criminality is learned through environment, family, peers, poverty, and culture |
- Theoretical Background
🔹 Nature-Based Theories
- Cesare Lombroso (1876): “Born criminals” with atavistic features
- William Sheldon: Mesomorph body types linked to aggression
- Modern biology: MAOA gene (warrior gene), low serotonin linked to violent behavior
- Twin & adoption studies show heritable criminal tendencies
🔹 Nurture-Based Theories
- Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Crime learned through observation and imitation
- Differential Association Theory (Sutherland): Peer influence is key to criminal behavior
- Strain Theory (Merton): Crime is a reaction to inequality and blocked opportunities
- Labeling Theory (Becker): Society’s reaction can reinforce deviant identity
- Modern Research and Integration
- Neuroscience shows that brain abnormalities may predispose aggression, but abuse and trauma often activate it
- Children with aggressive genes raised in supportive environments often don’t become criminals
- Conversely, children from non-criminal families can turn to crime due to poverty, drugs, or peer pressure
- Real-World Examples
✅ Nature Evident:
- Serial killers like Ted Bundy showed psychopathic traits, possibly biological
- Studies on violent inmates reveal links to brain damage and impulsivity
✅ Nurture Evident:
- Urban gangs recruit youth from poverty and broken homes
- Extremism and terrorism often rooted in ideological indoctrination and marginalization
- My Position: Bio-Social Approach
I support a bio-social or interactionist approach—crime results from biological predispositions shaped by environmental influences. Neither nature nor nurture alone is sufficient to explain criminality.
Factors | Interplay Example |
Genetic aggression | Triggered by violent, abusive environment |
Brain trauma | Magnified by peer rejection or social alienation |
Poor family supervision | Impacts child more if biologically prone to impulsivity |
- Implications for Crime Prevention and Policy
- 🧠 Early psychological screening for at-risk youth
- 🏘️ Improve socio-economic conditions and education access
- 🧑🏫 Focus on parenting programs and school support
- 🧬 Combine forensic psychiatry with rehabilitation, not just punishment
- ⚖️ Develop individualized criminal justice policies based on background
- Conclusion
The nature vs nurture debate is no longer an “either-or” dilemma. It is now well-established that biological traits and environmental conditions work together to shape human behavior. Understanding this interaction allows criminologists and policymakers to design more balanced, effective, and humane crime prevention strategies.
“Genes may load the gun, but environment pulls the trigger.”
Q. No. 3. Define and explain the following concepts: (05 marks each) (a) Left realism and right realism (b) Phrenology and Physiognomy (c) Corporal punishment and capital punishment (d) Sociology of Law, Criminal Etiology and Penology
Q.3 (a) Left Realism and Right Realism
Left Realism
Definition:
Left realism is a criminological perspective that emerged in the 1980s to address real-world crime, especially that affecting the working class.
Explanation:
It acknowledges that crime is a genuine problem and criticizes both traditional Marxist and conservative views. It attributes crime to relative deprivation, social exclusion, and marginalization, and calls for multi-agency responses including improved policing, community engagement, and social reform.
Key Theorists: Jock Young, Lea & Matthews
Application: Supports community policing and crime prevention through social inclusion.
Right Realism
Definition:
Right realism focuses on crime control through individual responsibility, deterrence, and tough-on-crime policies.
Explanation:
Emerging under conservative governments (Thatcher, Reagan), it argues that crime results from a breakdown of moral values and lack of social control. It supports zero-tolerance policing, target hardening, and rational choice theory.
Key Theorists: James Q. Wilson, Charles Murray
Application: Strongly influences law-and-order legislation in Western democracies.
Q.3 (b) Phrenology and Physiognomy
Phrenology
Definition:
Phrenology is a discredited theory that linked the shape of the skull to personality traits and criminal tendencies.
Explanation:
Proposed by Franz Gall in the 18th century, it suggested that brain regions responsible for behavior could be measured by cranial bumps. It attempted to biologically explain crime but was rejected due to lack of scientific support.
Relevance: Though outdated, phrenology laid groundwork for biological theories of criminology.
Physiognomy
Definition:
Physiognomy is the theory that facial features can indicate a person’s character or inclination toward crime.
Explanation:
Used by Cesare Lombroso in his “born criminal” theory, it claimed certain facial asymmetries and shapes signaled criminal predispositions. It has since been criticized for being unscientific and discriminatory.
Relevance: Highlights the historical roots of profiling and criminal anthropology, though now rejected in modern criminology.
Q.3 (c) Corporal Punishment and Capital Punishment
Corporal Punishment
Definition:
Corporal punishment refers to physical pain inflicted as a legal or disciplinary measure.
Explanation:
Historically used in schools and prisons, it includes methods like flogging, caning, or beating. Modern human rights standards oppose it for being cruel, degrading, and ineffective in reforming behavior.
Legal Status in Pakistan: Constitutionally discouraged; UN treaties call for abolition in all forms.
Capital Punishment
Definition:
Capital punishment, or the death penalty, is a state-sanctioned execution for certain criminal offenses.
Explanation:
Typically reserved for crimes like murder, terrorism, or treason, capital punishment remains controversial due to risks of miscarriages of justice, ethical concerns, and irreversibility.
Status in Pakistan: Legally enforced but internationally scrutinized.
Q.3 (d) Sociology of Law, Criminal Etiology, and Penology
Sociology of Law
Definition:
Sociology of law studies how laws interact with society, including their creation, implementation, and impact.
Explanation:
It views law as a social institution and explores how it shapes behavior, reflects power dynamics, and evolves with cultural change. It also examines legal pluralism and access to justice.
Relevance: Crucial in understanding how legal systems influence crime and justice delivery.
Criminal Etiology
Definition:
Criminal etiology is the study of the causes and origins of criminal behavior.
Explanation:
It encompasses biological, psychological, and sociological perspectives to identify why individuals commit crimes. It serves as the foundation for multiple criminological theories like strain theory, labeling theory, and social control theory.
Relevance: Informs prevention strategies and policy-making.
Penology
Definition:
Penology is the scientific study of punishment, prison systems, and rehabilitation.
Explanation:
It examines methods of punishment, their effects on offenders, and the effectiveness of incarceration, parole, and alternatives. Modern penology promotes restorative justice and rehabilitation over retribution.
Relevance: Directly influences correctional policy, sentencing, and prison reform.
Q. No. 4. Write a comprehensive note on the risk and protective factors of juvenile delinquency in Pakistan.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Understanding Juvenile Delinquency
- Risk Factors of Juvenile Delinquency in Pakistan
- Individual-Level Factors
- Family-Level Factors
- Peer and School-Level Factors
- Societal/Structural-Level Factors
- Protective Factors Against Juvenile Delinquency
- Policy Implications and Preventive Strategies
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal or antisocial behavior committed by individuals under the age of 18. In Pakistan, this phenomenon is influenced by a range of psychological, social, economic, and legal factors. Understanding both the risk factors that contribute to delinquency and the protective factors that prevent it is essential for designing effective juvenile justice policies.
- Understanding Juvenile Delinquency
According to the Juvenile Justice System Act (JJSA) 2018, a juvenile is any individual below 18 years of age accused of committing a legal offense.
Delinquency includes activities such as theft, assault, drug use, truancy, gang affiliation, and vandalism.
- Risk Factors of Juvenile Delinquency in Pakistan
✅ A. Individual-Level Factors
- 🧠 Low self-control and impulsivity
- 🧒 Mental health issues (e.g., ADHD, conduct disorders)
- 🚬 Substance abuse or early exposure to tobacco/drugs
- 📚 Low educational attainment and poor school engagement
✅ B. Family-Level Factors
- 👪 Broken or abusive family structures
- 💔 Parental neglect, domestic violence, or absence of guardianship
- 💰 Poverty and financial instability
- 🔄 Intergenerational criminal behavior (family history of crime)
✅ C. Peer and School-Level Factors
- 🧑🤝🧑 Association with delinquent peers or gangs
- 😡 Bullying and school violence
- 🏫 Negative school environment and lack of supervision
- 📉 Dropout rates and academic failure
✅ D. Societal/Structural-Level Factors
- 🏙️ Urbanization and slum living
- 🧾 Lack of access to social services, mental healthcare, and recreation
- 🧑⚖️ Weak juvenile justice infrastructure
- 💼 Child labor and economic exploitation
- Protective Factors Against Juvenile Delinquency
Category | Protective Factor |
👪 Family Support | Stable home environment, responsible parenting, supervision |
🏫 Educational Engagement | Good school performance, supportive teachers, structured learning |
🙋♂️ Positive Peer Influence | Friends who model law-abiding and goal-oriented behavior |
🧘 Social/Emotional Skills | Self-regulation, empathy, resilience, problem-solving skills |
🏛️ Legal & Social Services | Access to counseling, diversion programs, and rehabilitation |
🕌 Community & Religious Support | Mosques, NGOs, community centers offering moral guidance |
- Policy Implications and Prevention Strategies
- 🧑🏫 School-based interventions to reduce bullying and dropout
- 👨👩👧 Parenting training programs for at-risk families
- 🧠 Mental health and drug rehabilitation services for juveniles
- ⚖️ Full enforcement of JJSA 2018 for child-friendly justice
- 🧑⚖️ Probation, counseling, and diversion programs instead of incarceration
- 🤝 Collaborate with civil society and religious institutions for values education
- Conclusion
Juvenile delinquency in Pakistan is a multi-dimensional issue driven by both individual vulnerabilities and systemic failings. While risk factors such as poverty, abuse, and peer pressure fuel deviant behavior, protective factors like education, family care, and legal support can serve as powerful shields. A balanced and rehabilitative policy framework that targets both aspects is the key to building a safer, more inclusive future for the country’s youth.
“Every child behind bars is not a criminal, but a failure of the system to protect and guide.”
Q. No. 6. Define criminal investigation and its principles. Highlight with examples the importance of modern techniques used for crime detection in Pakistan.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Definition of Criminal Investigation
- Core Principles of Criminal Investigation
- Importance of Modern Crime Detection Techniques
- Key Modern Techniques Used in Pakistan
- Case Examples
- Challenges in Implementation
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Criminal investigation is the cornerstone of justice delivery. It determines whether a crime occurred, who committed it, and how it can be proved. With the rise of organized crime, cybercrime, and terrorism, traditional methods alone are insufficient. Modern investigative techniques play a vital role in evidence-based policing, ensuring that justice is both accurate and efficient.
- Definition of Criminal Investigation
Criminal investigation is a systematic process by which law enforcement agencies collect, document, and analyze facts and evidence to determine the truth about a crime and bring offenders to justice.
It includes crime scene analysis, suspect interrogation, forensic testing, and evidence gathering.
- Principles of Criminal Investigation
Principle | Explanation |
🧠 Objectivity | Avoid bias; follow evidence wherever it leads |
🕵️ Thoroughness | Investigate all leads without premature closure |
🔐 Legality | Adhere to due process and legal procedures (CrPC, QSO) |
📝 Documentation | Maintain detailed and verifiable case records |
🧩 Logical Sequence | Move from general to specific, cause to effect |
🧪 Scientific Method | Rely on forensic, digital, and technical tools for accuracy |
- Importance of Modern Crime Detection Techniques
- 🧬 Increases accuracy in identifying perpetrators
- ❌ Reduces reliance on confessions and torture
- ⚖️ Enhances court admissibility of evidence
- ⏳ Saves time in solving complex cases
- 💡 Helps crack cold cases or transnational crimes
- 🔍 Ensures evidence integrity and professional accountability
- Key Modern Techniques Used in Pakistan
✅ 1. Forensic Science
- DNA Profiling – matches suspects with biological evidence
- Ballistics – traces bullets to specific firearms
- Fingerprint analysis – AFIS systems digitize prints
- Toxicology – identifies poisons, drugs, or chemicals in the body
✅ 2. Digital & Cyber Forensics
- Recovering deleted messages, emails, call logs, IP traces
- Used in cyber harassment, fraud, terror financing
- FIA’s Cyber Crime Wing (NR3C) investigates online criminal activity
✅ 3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
- Used for hotspot mapping, surveillance, and crime trend analysis
- Adopted in Safe City Projects (Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar)
✅ 4. CCTV & Facial Recognition
- Integrated into urban surveillance systems
- Aids in tracking movements and identifying suspects in real-time
✅ 5. Mobile & Call Data Analysis (CDR)
- Traces communication patterns and location history
- Effective in terrorism, kidnapping, and gang tracking cases
✅ 6. Polygraph and Psychological Profiling
- Used to assess truthfulness and suspect behavior
- Supplementary in interrogation and screening high-risk suspects
- Examples of Use in Pakistan
- Zainab Ansari Case (2018): Solved through DNA and CCTV evidence
- Benazir Bhutto assassination investigation involved cell data triangulation
- Motorway rape case (2020): DNA from criminal database helped identify rapist
- Safe City Lahore: Helped reduce street crime by video-based tracking
- Cybercrime prosecutions in Karachi and Islamabad using digital forensics
- Challenges in Pakistan
- 🧑🔬 Lack of trained forensic and cyber experts
- 🏚️ Poor infrastructure in rural areas and outdated police labs
- 📑 Weak chain of custody and documentation practices
- 📉 Courts often dismiss forensic evidence due to procedural errors
- 💸 Budget limitations and insufficient inter-agency coordination
- Conclusion
Modern techniques have transformed criminal investigation from intuition-based to evidence-driven policing. In Pakistan, while progress has been made through projects like Safe Cities, NR3C, and forensic labs, broader adoption is needed. Training, legal reform, and resource investment can ensure that scientific methods replace coercive practices, resulting in a justice system that is credible, humane, and effective.
“The future of justice lies not in confessions, but in confirmed evidence.”
Q. No. 7. The International Criminal Police Organization- ICPO, INTERPOL was founded in 1914 with the founding principle to coordinate efforts relating to international police cooperation. How do you see the role of INTERPOL for reducing money laundering with special reference to Pakistan?
Outline:
- Introduction
- INTERPOL: Mandate and Global Role
- INTERPOL’s Anti-Money Laundering Mechanisms
- How INTERPOL Assists Member States (Including Pakistan)
- Pakistan’s Engagement with INTERPOL
- Role of INTERPOL in Reducing Money Laundering in Pakistan
- Challenges Faced in Coordination
- Recommendations for Enhanced Cooperation
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Money laundering is a transnational financial crime that undermines economic integrity, fuels corruption, and finances terrorism. As global financial systems become interconnected, no country can fight laundering alone. In this context, INTERPOL plays a critical role in facilitating cross-border cooperation, intelligence sharing, and joint operations against laundering networks—especially in developing economies like Pakistan, which remains under constant global AML scrutiny.
- INTERPOL: Mandate and Global Role
The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) is an intergovernmental police agency with 195 member countries, founded in 1914 and formally established in 1923.
- Headquartered in Lyon, France
- Promotes transnational policing without interfering in national laws
- Operates through National Central Bureaus (NCBs) in each member country
- Uses databases, Red Notices, and coordinated task forces to tackle crime
- Maintains specialized units for cybercrime, terrorism, and financial crime
- INTERPOL’s Anti-Money Laundering Mechanisms
- Financial Crimes Unit (FCU) targets:
- Laundering via banking, trade, crypto, and shell companies
- INTERPOL’s Global FIML Program (Financial and Illicit Money Flows)
- Tracks cross-border financial trails and suspicious transactions
- Project STOP (Smuggling and Terrorist Organizations’ Proceeds)
- Project TRIPOD – Targets money laundering through online platforms and crypto
- How INTERPOL Assists Member States
Function | Description |
🛰️ Global Intelligence Sharing | Through I-24/7 system, provides secure info exchange |
🟥 Red Notices | Alerts about wanted financial criminals and fugitives |
🧠 Capacity Building | Trains local agencies on anti-money laundering tools |
🤝 Coordination of Joint Operations | Multi-country raids and investigations |
📊 Database Access | Access to 19 global databases, including financial fraud |
- Pakistan’s Engagement with INTERPOL
- INTERPOL NCB in Islamabad, coordinated via FIA
- Uses INTERPOL for:
- Extradition of financial criminals
- Sharing alerts on fake accounts, Hundi/Hawala, and cyber laundering
- Collaborates with FATF, UNODC, and Egmont Group via INTERPOL intelligence
- Joint cases: Fake currency rackets, cyberfraud, Hawala channels
- INTERPOL’s Role in Reducing Money Laundering in Pakistan
✅ 1. Detection and Extradition of Financial Offenders
- Red Notices help track and arrest absconders abroad
- e.g., FIA’s use of INTERPOL in chasing loan defaulters and banking fraudsters
✅ 2. Disrupting Money Laundering Networks
- Cross-border cooperation identifies intermediaries and shell companies
- Helps unmask front companies and cross-border smuggling rings
✅ 3. Technical Training and Intelligence Sharing
- INTERPOL supports FIA, SBP, and NAB in financial investigations and crypto cases
- Tools like I-Checkit help monitor international transfers and suspicious flows
✅ 4. Links with Terror Financing Units
- Money laundering connected to terrorism financing—INTERPOL flags suspicious global flows
- Supports FATF compliance efforts through joint alerts
- Challenges in INTERPOL-Pakistan Coordination
- 📉 Limited domestic forensic and financial intelligence capability
- 🛑 Bureaucratic hurdles in extradition or Red Notice enforcement
- 🕵️♂️ Gaps between local agencies (e.g., NAB, FIA, FBR) weaken cooperation
- ❌ Data privacy concerns and lack of real-time info sharing
- ⚖️ Political influence often delays prosecution of high-profile offenders
- Recommendations for Better Results
Area | Recommendation |
🔄 Improve NCB-FIA Integration | Better coordination and quicker response to alerts |
🧑🏫 Regular Training | Equip FIA, NAB, and SBP teams in crypto, trade, and fintech AML |
🌐 Access to INTERPOL Databases | Ensure real-time usage of global fraud detection tools |
📜 Legal Reforms | Strengthen laws for extradition, financial data exchange |
🤝 Public–Private Partnerships | Banks, telcos, and fintech must align with INTERPOL tools |
- Conclusion
INTERPOL plays a pivotal global role in reducing money laundering through real-time intelligence, cross-border coordination, and offender tracking. For Pakistan, where illicit financial flows, Hundi networks, and white-collar crime are major challenges, INTERPOL’s tools can enhance national capacity to detect, disrupt, and prosecute laundering cases. However, success depends on political will, institutional readiness, and legal modernization.
“In a borderless world of crime, international cooperation is not a choice—it is the only solution.”
Q. No. 8. Explain the institutional corrections and alternative community corrections strategies in detail. Support your answer with examples where appropriate.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Definition and Types of Correctional Approaches
- Institutional Corrections: Concept, Types & Examples
- Community Corrections: Concept, Types & Examples
- Comparative Analysis
- Pakistan’s Correctional Landscape
- Challenges in Implementation
- Recommendations
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Corrections are a critical part of the criminal justice system aimed at punishing, rehabilitating, and reintegrating offenders. Traditionally dominated by institutional incarceration, modern penal policy also recognizes the importance of community-based alternatives. Balancing security needs with rehabilitation goals is the core principle of both systems.
- Correctional Approaches in Criminology
Type | Description |
📦 Institutional Corrections | Confinement in jails, prisons, or reformatories |
🌍 Community Corrections | Non-custodial measures within society to supervise offenders |
- Institutional Corrections
Definition:
Institutional corrections refer to systems where offenders are confined under state custody in jails, prisons, juvenile facilities, or detention centers.
🔹 Types and Functions
- Jails – Short-term detention, often under trial
- Prisons – Long-term imprisonment for convicted felons
- Juvenile Detention Centers – For youth offenders (under JJSA 2018 in Pakistan)
- High-Security Prisons – For terrorists, serial offenders, or high-risk criminals
🔹 Objectives
- Punishment
- Deterrence
- Isolation of dangerous individuals
- Rehabilitation (in theory, but often underdeveloped)
🔹 Examples
- Central Jail Karachi, Kot Lakhpat Prison Lahore
- Juvenile Reformatory Bahawalpur
- Punjab Forensic Science Agency (PFSA) works with prison authorities for case handling
- Alternative Community Corrections
Definition:
Community corrections refer to non-custodial penalties aimed at rehabilitation while the offender remains integrated within society under supervision.
🔹 Types of Community-Based Corrections
Type | Description |
🧾 Probation | Conditional release without jail time, under supervision |
🧠 Parole | Early release from prison with restrictions |
⚒️ Community Service | Unpaid work for public benefit as part of sentencing |
🧘 Rehabilitation Programs | Focus on drug abuse, anger management, or counseling |
🛡️ Electronic Monitoring | GPS ankle bracelets or biometrics to ensure compliance |
👥 Restorative Justice | Victim–offender mediation and conflict resolution |
🔹 Objectives
- Reintegration into society
- Avoid institutional trauma
- Reduce prison overcrowding
- Cost-effective justice
- Reduce recidivism
🔹 Examples
- Probation officers under Probation of Offenders Ordinance 1960 (Pakistan)
- Restorative justice programs by NGOs in KP and Sindh
- Drug rehab referrals via Anti-Narcotics Force (ANF) in Rawalpindi
- Comparative Analysis
Aspect | Institutional Corrections | Community Corrections |
🏛️ Control Level | High security, state-run | Moderate, supervised by officers |
🎯 Focus | Punishment, containment | Rehabilitation, reintegration |
💰 Cost | Expensive (food, housing, security) | Cost-effective and socially inclusive |
🧑⚖️ Targeted Offenders | High-risk, violent criminals | First-time or low-risk offenders |
🌍 Social Impact | Isolates individuals | Maintains family/community bonds |
- Correctional Landscape in Pakistan
- Pakistan Prisons: Overcrowded, understaffed, and underfunded
- Community Corrections: Underutilized despite availability of legal frameworks (e.g., Probation Ordinance 1960)
- NGOs and courts have piloted restorative and rehabilitative justice programs
- FIA and NACTA have referred cyber offenders to rehab under special schemes
- Challenges in Implementation (Pakistan)
- 🧑⚖️ Lack of trained probation officers and psychologists
- 📉 Weak public trust in non-custodial penalties
- ⚖️ Limited judicial enforcement of community sentencing
- 🏚️ Poor infrastructure in prisons
- 💬 Social stigma hinders rehabilitation and reintegration
- Recommendations
- 🧑🏫 Train and deploy more probation and parole officers
- 🏫 Establish district-level rehabilitation and reintegration centers
- 🧠 Mandatory rehabilitation programs in all correctional facilities
- ⚖️ Encourage courts to prefer community corrections for non-violent crimes
- 🤝 Collaborate with NGOs, mosques, and local government for social reintegration
- 📱 Introduce electronic monitoring for low-risk parolees
- Conclusion
Modern corrections require a balance between institutional control and community-based reform. Institutional confinement is essential for high-risk criminals, but community corrections offer a more humane, cost-effective, and rehabilitative solution for minor and first-time offenders. Pakistan must expand its community corrections infrastructure and update its institutional policies to truly align with global standards of justice.
“The goal of correction is not isolation—it is transformation.”
Q. No. 9. Keeping in view the social learning perspective in criminology, discuss how terrorists use internet as a tool to reinforce their ideology among youth in Pakistan.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Understanding the Social Learning Theory
- Digital Radicalization: A Modern Criminological Concern
- How Terrorists Use the Internet to Influence Youth
- Mechanisms of Online Radicalization (Based on Social Learning)
- Examples from Pakistan
- Consequences of Online Terror Recruitment
- Counterstrategies and Recommendations
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
In the digital era, terrorism has evolved beyond borders, adopting modern communication tools like the internet and social media to reach vulnerable individuals, particularly youth. Applying the social learning theory in criminology reveals how online environments become platforms where terrorist ideologies are learned, normalized, and imitated—making cyberspace a breeding ground for radicalization in countries like Pakistan.
- Social Learning Theory: Criminological Basis
Propounded by Albert Bandura and expanded by Edwin Sutherland, social learning theory asserts that criminal behavior is learned through interaction, imitation, and reinforcement from significant others or influential models.
🔹 Core Principles:
- Behavior is learned through observation
- Reinforced by rewards, praise, or acceptance
- Influenced by peer groups, media, and social environments
- Crime is normalized if it is modeled as justified or heroic
- Digital Radicalization: A New-Age Threat
- Terrorist groups now use online platforms (websites, Telegram, WhatsApp, YouTube) to spread propaganda
- Youth—especially isolated or vulnerable—are targeted with emotional, ideological, and religious messaging
- Online radicalization is low-cost, anonymous, and far-reaching
- How Terrorists Use the Internet to Influence Youth
✅ 1. Glorification of Martyrdom
- Share videos, songs, stories praising suicide bombers and militants
- Present violence as heroism and religious duty
✅ 2. Ideological Indoctrination
- Spread extremist religious interpretations, often misquoting Quran or Hadith
- Use visuals and nasheeds to emotionally manipulate
✅ 3. Recruitment Platforms
- Engage youth through private chatrooms, gaming forums, or social media
- Use fake identities or scholars to attract and mentor recruits
✅ 4. Echo Chambers and Algorithms
- Platforms like YouTube and Facebook recommend similar content once watched
- Creates ideological silos and normalizes extremist beliefs
- Mechanisms Based on Social Learning
Social Learning Element | Online Radicalization Example |
👀 Observation | Watching terror acts, speeches, or videos glorifying violence |
👨👦 Imitation | Emulating online “jihad heroes” or influencers |
🧠 Internalization | Accepting ideology as moral/religious truth |
🗣️ Differential Association | Connecting with radicalized peers online |
🎖️ Reinforcement | Receiving praise, attention, or spiritual validation from networks |
- Examples from Pakistan
- 🧑💻 ISKP (Islamic State Khorasan Province) used Telegram and Twitter to target Pakistani youth
- 📱 Arrested university students in Lahore & Karachi exposed to online jihadist content
- 👥 Banned organizations (e.g., TTP) use Facebook pages and encrypted apps to recruit or fundraise
- 🔄 Online sermons by radical clerics during COVID lockdown led to spike in extremist views
- Consequences of Online Terror Recruitment
- ❌ Youth radicalization without direct contact with militants
- 🎯 Use in lone-wolf attacks, hate crimes, or cyber-terrorism
- 🧱 Undermines state efforts in deradicalization and peace-building
- 📉 Erodes national image and youth potential
- Counterstrategies and Recommendations
Strategy | Action |
🔍 Digital Monitoring | Strengthen FIA’s NR3C cyber wing for surveillance and takedowns |
📚 Counter-Narrative Campaigns | Promote moderate scholars, youth influencers, and media literacy |
🧑🏫 Digital Education | Teach critical thinking and fact-checking in school curriculum |
⚖️ Legal Action | Enforce PECA Act, 2016 against online hate speech and extremism |
🤝 Multi-Agency Collaboration | Engage PTA, NACTA, NGOs, and tech companies for coordination |
🕌 Religious Dialogue | Promote moderate clerics to debunk misinterpretations online |
- Conclusion
In the lens of social learning theory, online radicalization is not accidental—it is a systematic learning process where terrorists act as digital mentors. For a youth-rich country like Pakistan, the internet must be reclaimed as a tool for peace, knowledge, and civic engagement. The key lies in prevention, counter-narratives, and cyber-vigilance driven by both the state and society.
“Terror is taught. So must be tolerance.”