(a) Ibn-e-Khaldun’s Concept of Asabiyyah

Introduction

The concept of ‘Asabiyyah’, introduced by Ibn Khaldun in his seminal work Muqaddimah (1377), refers to the social cohesion or group solidarity that binds individuals into a collective political force. Asabiyyah is the dynamic essence behind the rise and fall of dynasties, states, and civilizations, especially in tribal and nomadic societies.

“Dynasties do not rise and fall because of wealth or arms, but because of Asabiyyah.” — Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddimah

1. Definition and Nature

• Asabiyyah originates from Arabic root ‘ʿaṣaba’ meaning to bind or tie
• Describes strong social solidarity in tribal, familial, or religious groups
• Initially emotional and instinctive; later rationalized for political dominance

2. Political Role of Asabiyyah

• Functions as the driving force behind tribal unification
• Enables groups to challenge ruling elites and establish dynasties
• Nomadic tribes with strong Asabiyyah often overthrow sedentary, decadent states

3. Cyclical Theory of Dynastic Rise and Fall

• New ruling groups bring fresh Asabiyyah and begin the cycle anew

4. Comparative Insight

• Similar to Durkheim’s social solidarity or Weber’s charismatic authority
• Anticipates modern ideas of social capital and elite circulation

5. Modern Relevance

• Explains tribal politics in Afghanistan, Yemen, and Libya
• Pakistan: kinship-based political alliances reflect Asabiyyah logic
• Weakening national unity in modern states often a result of fragmented Asabiyyah

Conclusion

Asabiyyah remains a profound explanatory tool for understanding historical change and political legitimacy in Islamic and non-Western societies. Ibn Khaldun’s insights predate Western sociology and offer a uniquely indigenous framework to assess political power.

(b) Marx’s Theory of Class Struggle

Introduction

The concept of Class Struggle is central to Karl Marx’s materialist interpretation of history. According to Marx, all history is the history of struggles between oppressor and oppressed, rooted in economic inequality and the ownership of the means of production.

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” — Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto (1848)

1. Basis of Class Formation

• Society is divided into classes based on control of economic resources
• In capitalist societies:
  • Bourgeoisie: Owners of capital
  • Proletariat: Wage laborers who sell their labor

2. Dialectical Materialism and Class Conflict

• Historical materialism: Economic structure determines societal superstructure (law, politics, religion)
• Dialectics: Change occurs through contradictions and conflict
• Class conflict is the motor of historical transformation

3. Class Struggle Across History

• Marx predicted that capitalism would give way to socialism through proletarian revolution

4. Alienation and Surplus Value

• Workers are alienated from their labor, product, and fellow humans
• Capitalists extract surplus value from labor, creating exploitation

5. Modern Relevance

• Rising economic inequality, gig economy, and labor automation highlight continuing class tensions
• Marx’s insights shape debates on welfare state, universal basic income, and workers’ rights

“Workers of the world unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains.” — Karl Marx

Criticism

• Overemphasis on economics; neglects culture, gender, race
• Failed implementations (e.g., USSR, Maoist China)
• Yet many ideas adapted in social democracy and labor rights movements

Conclusion

Marx’s theory of class struggle remains a foundational tool in political sociology and political economy. While historical conditions have evolved, the gap between owners and workers—capital and labor—still defines many global injustices, affirming the enduring relevance of Marx’s analysis.