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Q. No. 2. Under the Unitary State System, how does the local government system work in the UK?

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. Overview of the Unitary State System in the UK
  3. Constitutional Position of Local Governments in the UK
  4. Structure of Local Government in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland
  5. Powers and Functions of Local Authorities
  6. Financial Autonomy and Central Control
  7. Key Features and Reforms in Local Governance
  8. Comparative Evaluation
  9. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

The United Kingdom (UK) operates under a unitary form of government, where sovereignty resides in the national Parliament at Westminster. Despite this centralization, the UK maintains a well-organized and robust system of local government. Local councils and authorities, although not constitutionally guaranteed, play a pivotal role in the delivery of public services and grassroots democracy.

  1. Overview of the Unitary State System in the UK

Definition

A unitary state is one where all legal powers emanate from the central government, unlike a federal system where sovereignty is constitutionally divided.

UK Context

  • Parliament at Westminster is supreme (Parliamentary Sovereignty).
  • Local governments function as statutory bodies, empowered by Acts of Parliament.
  • They are delegated institutions, not autonomous entities.
  1. Constitutional Position of Local Governments in the UK
  • No written constitution: The UK follows a conventional and statutory framework.
  • Local government is not a third tier of government like in federations.
  • Exists because of legislation passed by Parliament (e.g., Local Government Act 1972, 2000, 2011).

“Local government in the UK has no constitutional standing but exists at the will of Parliament.” – Rodney Brazier

  1. Structure of Local Government
  2. England
  • Complex and varied system:
    • Two-tier: County councils & district councils (in non-metropolitan areas).
    • Single-tier (Unitary Authorities): In metropolitan and some rural areas.
    • Greater London Authority (GLA): Mayor of London and London Assembly.
  1. Scotland
  • 32 Unitary Councils.
  • Greater local autonomy post-Scotland Act 1998 and devolution reforms.
  1. Wales
  • 22 Unitary Authorities under Local Government (Wales) Act 1994.
  • Education, transport, and health delegated post-devolution.
  1. Northern Ireland
  • 11 District Councils.
  • Powers limited due to post-conflict administrative sensitivity.
  1. Powers and Functions of Local Authorities

Functional Area

Responsibility

Education

Administer local schools, allocate funding

Housing

Manage social housing and homelessness policies

Planning

Local development plans and zoning

Transportation

Local roads, public transit within areas

Social Services

Childcare, elderly care, welfare programs

Public Health

Local hospitals, health awareness, sanitation

Libraries and Culture

Manage local libraries, museums, parks

  1. Financial Autonomy and Central Control

Funding Sources

  • Council Tax (primary local tax)
  • Business Rates
  • Central Government Grants (declining over time)
  • Fees and Charges for services

Central Oversight

  • UK government sets broad policy guidelines.
  • Local Government Ombudsman oversees administrative justice.
  • Budget capping and audit mechanisms limit fiscal independence.
  1. Key Features and Reforms in UK Local Government
  2. Devolution and Modernization
  • From the 1990s onward, moves toward devolving powers to regional governments (e.g., Scotland, Wales).
  • Localism Act 2011 emphasized community decision-making and neighbourhood planning.
  1. Directly Elected Mayors
  • Introduced in some cities (e.g., London, Manchester, Liverpool).
  • Aim to enhance accountability and visibility of leadership.
  1. Public Engagement
  • Citizen involvement through consultations, referendums, and local petitions.
  • Use of e-governance and open data portals.
  1. Comparative Evaluation: Unitary but Functionally Decentralized

Feature

UK Local Government

Federal System (e.g., USA)

Constitutional Autonomy

None; powers delegated by Parliament

Guaranteed under the constitution

Financial Independence

Moderate; dependent on grants and taxes

High; states can tax and legislate independently

Role in Legislation

No direct role in national legislation

State legislatures have law-making authority

Responsiveness

Generally high in service delivery

High, but varies by state

  1. Conclusion

The UK local government system, though operating under a unitary constitutional framework, performs vital functions in public service delivery and community development. While it lacks constitutional status or sovereign authority, it has been gradually empowered through decentralization and political reforms. The balance between central authority and local responsiveness ensures that governance remains close to the people, making the system efficient, accountable, and adaptable.

“While the UK is a unitary state in law, it is federal in function—especially at the level of local governance.”

Q. No. 3. How does the system of Checks and Balances work in the US political system? Explain with examples.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. The Principle of Separation of Powers
  3. Understanding Checks and Balances
  4. Checks and Balances Among the Three Branches
    • Legislative ↔ Executive
    • Executive ↔ Judicial
    • Judicial ↔ Legislative
  5. Examples of Checks in Practice
  6. Strengths and Criticism of the System
  7. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

The United States political system is built upon the doctrine of separation of powers articulated by Montesquieu, which divides authority among the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. To ensure that no branch becomes too powerful, the U.S. Constitution incorporates a system of checks and balances, where each branch exercises oversight and restraint over the others. This mechanism not only maintains institutional equilibrium but also safeguards individual liberties.

  1. The Principle of Separation of Powers
  • Enshrined in the U.S. Constitution (1787).
  • Divides government into three branches:
    • Legislative (Congress) – Makes laws.
    • Executive (President) – Enforces laws.
    • Judicial (Supreme Court and lower courts) – Interprets laws.
  • Each branch is independent and derives its authority from the Constitution.
  1. Understanding Checks and Balances
  • Designed to prevent tyranny by distributing power.
  • Each branch can:
    • Check the powers of others.
    • Balance their authority through constitutionally granted mechanisms.
  • Ensures accountability, transparency, and rule of law.
  1. Checks and Balances Among the Three Branches
  2. Legislative Checks on Executive

Mechanism

Explanation

Impeachment Powers

House can impeach; Senate tries the case. E.g., impeachment of Donald Trump (2019, 2021).

Override Vetoes

Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority in both houses.

Power of the Purse

Congress controls federal spending and budgeting.

Senate Approval

Senate confirms appointments and treaties negotiated by the President.

  1. Executive Checks on Legislature

Mechanism

Explanation

Veto Power

President can veto bills passed by Congress.

Special Sessions

President can call Congress into emergency sessions.

Executive Orders

Used to direct executive agencies and bypass legislative gridlock (though subject to judicial review).

  1. Judicial Checks on Legislature and Executive

Mechanism

Explanation

Judicial Review

Courts can strike down laws or executive actions that violate the Constitution. E.g., Marbury v. Madison (1803).

Lifetime Appointment

Judges are appointed for life, ensuring independence from political pressure.

Review of Executive Orders

E.g., Courts blocking Trump’s travel ban in 2017.

  1. Legislative and Executive Checks on Judiciary

Mechanism

Explanation

Appointments

President nominates federal judges; Senate confirms.

Impeachment

Congress can remove judges for misconduct.

Amend Constitution

Congress can propose amendments to override judicial decisions.

  1. Examples of Checks in Practice

Event

Branch Involved

Nature of Check

Nixon’s Resignation (1974)

Judiciary (U.S. v Nixon) compelled executive to hand over tapes.

Judicial check on Executive

Obama’s Executive Order on Immigration (DACA)

Blocked by courts and challenged in Congress.

Judicial and Legislative check on Executive

Congress Override of Reagan’s Veto (1986)

Veto of Anti-Apartheid Act overridden.

Legislative check on Executive

Affordable Care Act (2012)

Upheld by Supreme Court.

Judicial interpretation affecting both branches

  1. Strengths and Criticism of the System

Strengths

  • Prevents autocracy or dictatorship.
  • Encourages dialogue and compromise.
  • Protects individual rights and civil liberties.
  • Fosters transparency and institutional responsibility.

Criticism

Issue

Explanation

Gridlock

Excessive checking can paralyze governance (e.g., budget shutdowns).

Politicization of Judiciary

Lifetime appointments may lead to ideological bias.

Executive Overreach

Increasing use of executive orders sidestepping Congress.

  1. Conclusion

The system of checks and balances is a cornerstone of U.S. constitutional democracy, ensuring that no single institution wields unchecked power. While not without flaws, it reflects a deliberate design to protect liberty, uphold the Constitution, and guarantee rule-based governance. Its relevance endures as the U.S. continues to navigate the challenges of a modern democratic republic.

“The accumulation of all powers…in the same hands…may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny.”
— James Madison, Federalist Paper No. 47

Q. No. 4. “A strong political system needs a very strong political economy.” Prove this statement by making a comparative and analytical answer with reference to China and Malaysia.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. Understanding Political Economy and Political Stability
  3. China: Authoritarian Capitalism and Strong State Control
  4. Malaysia: Hybrid Democracy and Market-Oriented Development
  5. Comparative Analysis: Key Variables
  6. Political Economy Theories Supporting the Relationship
  7. Challenges and Future Outlook
  8. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

The statement that “a strong political system needs a very strong political economy” is rooted in the recognition that economic performance underpins political legitimacy, stability, and governance. Both China and Malaysia serve as important models demonstrating how robust economic frameworks support stable political systems, albeit through different ideological and institutional paths.

  1. Understanding Political Economy and Political Stability

Political Economy

  • Refers to the interplay between politics and economics.
  • Examines how public policies, governance, and institutions shape and are shaped by economic systems.

Political System

  • Includes structures like government types (democracy, authoritarianism), institutions, rule of law, and public participation.

A weak economy often leads to weak political institutions, instability, and unrest. Conversely, economic development can legitimize authority and ensure policy continuity.

  1. China: Authoritarian Capitalism and Strong State Control

Political System

  • One-party authoritarian state under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
  • Centralized decision-making; no multiparty elections.
  • Political legitimacy derived from performance-based governance.

Economic System

  • State-led capitalism with market reforms since Deng Xiaoping (1978).
  • Massive investments in infrastructure, industrial capacity, and global trade.
  • GDP growth averaging over 9% per annum for 30 years.

Link Between Economy and Politics

  • Economic success justifies CCP’s monopoly over power.
  • Rising middle class and reduced poverty bolster social stability.
  • Global influence via Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
  1. Malaysia: Hybrid Democracy and Market-Oriented Development

Political System

  • Parliamentary democracy with periodic elections.
  • Historically dominated by Barisan Nasional, now experiencing multiparty contests.
  • Judiciary and press relatively free compared to China.

Economic System

  • Open market economy with strong emphasis on trade, exports, and FDI.
  • Transitioned from agricultural to industrial economy in the 1980s.
  • Vision 2020 aimed to make Malaysia a high-income nation.

Link Between Economy and Politics

  • Economic growth legitimized ruling coalitions for decades.
  • Stability attracted investors and enhanced Malaysia’s global ranking.
  • 2018 election upset (Pakatan Harapan victory) was also influenced by economic grievances (e.g., GST, cost of living).
  1. Comparative Analysis: China vs Malaysia

Variable

China

Malaysia

Political System

Authoritarian (CCP)

Multiparty Parliamentary Democracy

Economic Model

State Capitalism

Market-Oriented, Export-Based Economy

Political Legitimacy

Performance-based (GDP growth, poverty reduction)

Democratic legitimacy through elections

Public Participation

Limited

Moderate to High

Economic Contribution to Stability

Very high – maintains CCP authority

High – enables smooth transitions of power

Global Position

Emerging superpower

Middle-power in ASEAN

  1. Political Economy Theories Supporting the Link
  2. Modernization Theory
  • Economic development leads to political modernization and institutional maturity.
  • China’s growth has modernized bureaucracy and governance structures.
  • Malaysia’s economic success fostered civil society and electoral competition.
  1. Neo-Institutionalism
  • Strong institutions facilitate economic predictability and investment.
  • In both countries, institutional discipline (even with flaws) supports political durability.
  1. Developmental State Theory
  • State plays strategic role in directing economic growth.
  • China exemplifies this with its state-owned enterprises (SOEs).
  • Malaysia followed similar strategies under Mahathir’s leadership.
  1. Challenges and Future Outlook

China

  • Slowing GDP growth, rising debt, and tech restrictions from the West.
  • Suppression of dissent (e.g., Hong Kong) risks political backlash.

Malaysia

  • Rising inequality, ethnic tensions, and corruption scandals (e.g., 1MDB).
  • Frequent government changes post-2018 have dented investor confidence.

Common Lessons

  • Economic downturns challenge political legitimacy.
  • Sustainable growth, transparency, and equitable development are crucial for long-term political resilience.
  1. Conclusion

The experiences of China and Malaysia clearly affirm that a strong political economy is a prerequisite for a stable and functional political system. While China sustains its one-party rule through economic dominance, Malaysia’s democracy thrives best when its economy performs well. Hence, economic foundations reinforce institutional legitimacy, shape political behavior, and ensure long-term governance effectiveness.

“Political power grows not only from the barrel of a gun, but from the stability of markets and the prosperity of people.” – Adapted from Mao Zedong & modern political economists.

Q. No. 5. Discuss the major issues of the constitutional making process in Pakistan in 1956, 1962, and 1973.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. Historical Background of Constitution-Making in Pakistan
  3. The 1956 Constitution – First Republican Attempt
  4. The 1962 Constitution – Authoritarian Engineering
  5. The 1973 Constitution – A Democratic Consensus
  6. Comparative Issues in the Three Constitutional Phases
  7. Legacy and Long-term Impact
  8. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

Constitution-making in Pakistan has been a turbulent and politically contested process, shaped by ethnic, religious, civil-military, and regional tensions. Despite being created as a democratic state in 1947, Pakistan struggled for over two decades to establish a stable and consensual constitutional framework, resulting in three major constitutions: in 1956, 1962, and 1973. Each was born out of specific crises, and each had its distinct set of issues.

  1. Historical Background of Constitution-Making in Pakistan
  • Pakistan inherited the Government of India Act 1935 (with modifications) as its interim constitution.
  • The country faced:
    • Ethno-linguistic diversity
    • Geographic disparity between East and West Pakistan
    • Weak political institutions
    • Military-bureaucratic dominance

These structural issues made constitution-making a prolonged and contentious process.

  1. The 1956 Constitution – First Republican Attempt

Key Features

  • Declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic.
  • Introduced parliamentary form of government.
  • Unicameral legislature.
  • Equal representation to East and West Pakistan.

Major Issues

Issue

Explanation

Delay in Constitution-Making

Took 9 years after independence to frame.

East-West Disparity

East Pakistan had majority population, yet parity principle (50:50) was enforced, fueling resentment.

Religious Identity vs Secularism

Controversy over Islamic provisions and minority rights.

Weak Executive

Prime ministers changed frequently due to political instability.

Lack of Military Consent

Military saw it as fragile and inefficient; General Ayub Khan eventually abrogated it.

  1. The 1962 Constitution – Authoritarian Engineering

Key Features

  • Introduced by President Ayub Khan.
  • Created a presidential system.
  • Abolished political parties initially.
  • Replaced direct elections with Basic Democracies (indirect system).
  • Limited Islamic clauses.

Major Issues

Issue

Explanation

Lack of Legitimacy

Drafted without public consensus or parliamentary process.

Centralization of Power

Gave extensive powers to the president; weakened legislature and judiciary.

Suppressing Political Culture

Banned parties (initially), curbed dissent.

Elections Under Basic Democracies

No universal suffrage, weakening democratic participation.

Islamic Identity Confusion

Reduced role of religion, sparking opposition from Islamic parties.

  1. The 1973 Constitution – Democratic Consensus

Key Features

  • Parliamentary democracy restored.
  • Bicameral legislature: Senate (equal) + National Assembly (population-based).
  • Islamic provisions reinforced: Pakistan as Islamic Republic, Council of Islamic Ideology, etc.
  • Recognized provincial autonomy within federal structure.
  • Ensured judicial independence.

Major Issues During Drafting

Issue

Explanation

Balancing Islam and Democracy

Debates over enforcing Sharia vs civil liberties.

Federalism vs Provincialism

Fear of secession (post-East Pakistan) led to compromises with provinces.

Military Oversight

Constitution was a product of civilian rule, but military influence remained latent.

Judicial Ambiguities

Independence of judiciary pledged, but constitutional amendments later diluted this.

  1. Comparative Issues in the Three Constitutional Phases

Dimension

1956 Constitution

1962 Constitution

1973 Constitution

Drafting Authority

Constituent Assembly

Military regime (Ayub Khan)

Elected National Assembly

Political Legitimacy

Weak due to delay and elite dominance

Minimal due to authoritarian origin

High, passed with consensus

Form of Government

Parliamentary

Presidential

Parliamentary

Religious Clauses

Moderate Islamic identity

Minimal Islamic clauses

Strong Islamic framework

Provincial Autonomy

Weak – parity system

Highly centralized

Balanced via federalism and bicameralism

Stability

Lasted only 2 years

Lasted 7 years

Enduring with periodic amendments

  1. Legacy and Long-Term Impact
  • 1956 Constitution’s failure exposed the inability to reconcile regional and ideological conflicts.
  • 1962 Constitution’s autocracy led to popular protests and ultimate collapse under Bhutto’s movement.
  • 1973 Constitution, despite amendments, remains the cornerstone of Pakistan’s constitutional framework.
    • Amendments like the 8th, 17th, and 18th have reshaped its spirit.
  1. Conclusion

The constitutional journey of Pakistan reflects a struggle between democratic ideals and centralized control, between Islamic identity and pluralism, and between civilian rule and military influence. Each constitution addressed specific crises of its time but also introduced new complexities. The 1973 Constitution, owing to its broad consensus and adaptability, stands as the most resilient framework—yet requires continued political maturity and judicial independence to fulfill its promise.

“Constitutions are not mere documents; they are reflections of political will, historical compromise, and national identity.”

Q. No. 6. What are the major obstacles to the process of national integration in contemporary Pakistan? Suggest remedies for success of the process.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. Understanding National Integration
  3. Obstacles to National Integration in Contemporary Pakistan
    • Ethnic and Linguistic Divisions
    • Provincial Disparities
    • Religious and Sectarian Conflicts
    • Political Instability and Elite Capture
    • Role of Education and Media
    • Lack of Civic Nationalism
  4. Case References and Examples
  5. Remedies for Promoting National Integration
  6. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

National integration is the process of uniting diverse groups within a country into a cohesive whole, ensuring political stability, social harmony, and economic progress. In Pakistan, national integration remains fragile despite 75+ years of independence. Ethnic, linguistic, religious, and class-based divisions have undermined social cohesion and national solidarity.

  1. Understanding National Integration
  • It implies unity in diversity, where citizens from various regions, ethnicities, and beliefs feel a shared sense of identity.
  • In Pakistan’s context, it requires balancing regional autonomy with national loyalty, and respecting plurality while fostering common values.

“No nation can progress unless its people feel they belong to the same destiny.”

  1. Obstacles to National Integration in Contemporary Pakistan
  2. Ethnic and Linguistic Divisions
  • Pakistan is home to Punjabis, Sindhis, Baloch, Pashtuns, Seraikis, Muhajirs, and others.
  • Language-based movements (e.g., Sindhi nationalism, Baloch insurgency) demand greater autonomy.
  • Urdu, while national language, is not the mother tongue of the majority—creating identity-based frictions.
  1. Provincial Disparities and Uneven Development
  • Punjab dominates in population, resources, and political power.
  • Balochistan, despite rich resources, suffers from economic deprivation, leading to alienation.
  • The NFC Award, though improved post-18th Amendment, remains contested.
  1. Religious and Sectarian Conflict
  • Sunni-Shia tensions, Deobandi-Barelvi divisions, and persecution of Ahmadis and Hindus threaten harmony.
  • Rise of sectarian outfits like Sipah-e-Sahaba or Lashkar-e-Jhangvi has widened social fractures.
  1. Political Instability and Elite Capture
  • Lack of consistent democratic tradition undermines national trust.
  • Frequent military takeovers, weak local governments, and elite-driven policies create alienation in the masses.
  1. Weak Education and Biased Media Narratives
  • Curriculum lacks inclusive national history and promotes intolerance.
  • Media often highlights regional bias and amplifies divisions (e.g., “Punjab-centric” narrative).
  • Youth radicalization due to lack of civic education and employment.
  1. Absence of Civic Nationalism
  • Loyalty is often to tribe, ethnicity, or sect over nation-state.
  • National symbols (e.g., national anthem, flag) fail to inspire universal emotional ownership.
  1. Case References and Examples

Region/Group

Issue

Balochistan

Insurgency due to resource exploitation and FC excesses.

Sindh

Anti-centre sentiment post-Kalabagh Dam debates.

South Punjab

Underdevelopment leading to calls for a new province.

Former FATA regions

Delay in integration and development post-merger with KP.

  1. Remedies for Promoting National Integration
  2. Equitable Federalism
  • Implement the 18th Amendment in letter and spirit.
  • Transparent NFC Award ensuring proportional resource distribution.
  1. Inclusive Education Reforms
  • Revise curriculum to include pluralistic narratives, regional heroes, and interfaith harmony.
  • Promote national language alongside regional languages for cultural pride and communication.
  1. Strengthening Local Governance
  • Devolve powers effectively to district and tehsil levels.
  • Empower local communities to manage their own development and feel represented.
  1. Promoting Civic Nationalism
  • Media campaigns highlighting common national identity.
  • Celebrate regional cultures within national festivals (e.g., Sindh Cultural Day, Pashtun Day).
  1. Reconciliation and Political Inclusion
  • Address grievances through dialogue, not suppression.
  • Involve tribal elders, civil society, and youth in policymaking processes.
  1. Curbing Sectarianism and Extremism
  • Crack down on hate speech and violent outfits.
  • Promote interfaith dialogue, moderate religious scholarship, and Sufi traditions of tolerance.
  1. Economic Uplift of Marginalized Regions
  • Ensure CPEC projects benefit Balochistan, GB, and KP equitably.
  • Encourage investment in job-generating sectors like agriculture, tourism, and renewable energy in underserved regions.
  1. Conclusion

The process of national integration in Pakistan faces deep-seated structural and socio-political challenges. Unless deliberate and sustained efforts are made to foster a shared sense of identity, accommodate regional aspirations, and promote justice and inclusion, Pakistan will continue to struggle with internal fissures. A harmonized national vision, underpinned by equity, inclusion, and mutual respect, is the only pathway to national cohesion.

“Unity in diversity must not just be a slogan but a lived experience for every citizen of Pakistan.”

Q. No. 7. Write down the major determinants of the foreign policy of Pakistan.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. Definition and Objectives of Foreign Policy
  3. Major Determinants of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy
    • Geostrategic Location
    • Security and Defence Considerations
    • Kashmir and India-Centric Policy
    • Economic Needs and Trade Interests
    • Islamic Identity and Ummah Solidarity
    • Relations with Major Powers
    • Domestic Political Environment
    • Public Opinion and Media Influence
    • Role of Military Establishment
    • Regional and Global Organizations
  4. Evolving Trends in 21st Century
  5. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

Foreign policy serves as the guiding framework through which a state manages its relations with other nations, pursuing national interests through diplomacy, defense, trade, and strategic alliances. Pakistan, situated at the crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East, has crafted its foreign policy under the influence of multiple internal and external factors.

  1. Definition and Objectives of Foreign Policy

Foreign policy refers to the set of principles and strategies adopted by a state to secure its national interests, including territorial integrity, economic prosperity, and global standing.

Core Objectives of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy:

  • Safeguard sovereignty and territorial integrity.
  • Secure Kashmir’s resolution based on UN resolutions.
  • Ensure regional peace and security.
  • Foster economic and trade cooperation.
  • Promote ties with Islamic countries and the Muslim Ummah.
  1. Major Determinants of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy
  2. Geostrategic Location
  • Pakistan borders India, China, Afghanistan, and Iran, and has proximity to oil-rich Middle East.
  • Strategic gateway to the Arabian Sea, Central Asia, and the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).
  • This location places Pakistan at the heart of regional power politics, making alignment with global powers inevitable.
  1. Security and Defence Considerations
  • Historically, military and nuclear security have dominated foreign policy due to hostile relations with India, frequent wars, and cross-border tensions.
  • Pakistan’s alliance with the US during the Cold War and later with China is driven by security balancing.
  1. Kashmir Dispute and India-Centric Policy
  • Kashmir remains central to Pakistan’s foreign policy.
  • Tensions post-2019 (revocation of Article 370 by India) have intensified Pakistan’s diplomatic efforts at international forums (OIC, UN).
  1. Economic Needs and Trade Interests
  • Heavy reliance on foreign aid, IMF support, bilateral loans, and remittances.
  • Foreign policy often dictated by economic alignments:
    • China (CPEC) for infrastructure.
    • Saudi Arabia/UAE for energy and loans.
    • US/EU for trade and military aid.
  1. Islamic Identity and Ummah Solidarity
  • Ideological alignment with Islamic causes such as Palestine, Rohingya, Afghanistan, and Kashmir.
  • Close diplomatic, religious, and economic ties with the Gulf states and OIC members.
  1. Relations with Major Powers
  • United States: Strategic ally post-9/11 but relations remain transactional and conditional.
  • China: All-weather strategic partner, especially in defence, infrastructure (CPEC), and diplomatic backing.
  • Russia: Improving ties in energy, security, and diplomacy.
  • European Union: Major trading partner under the GSP+ status.
  1. Domestic Political Environment
  • Frequent civil-military tensions, political instability, and regime changes have impacted foreign policy continuity.
  • Civilian governments often have limited control; military establishment plays a dominant role in strategic decisions.
  1. Public Opinion and Media
  • Media highlights foreign policy failures or victories (e.g., FATF greylisting, India-Pakistan skirmishes).
  • Public support is crucial for legitimizing alliances (e.g., backlash over relations with the US vs. support for ties with China or Turkey).
  1. Role of the Military Establishment
  • Pakistan Army has historically shaped foreign policy in India, Afghanistan, and the US relations.
  • ISI and GHQ influence foreign engagements on security, intelligence sharing, and strategic affairs.
  1. Regional and International Organizations
  • Pakistan aligns foreign policy through forums like:
    • OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation)
    • SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)
    • UN and its agencies
    • Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
  • Such affiliations shape diplomatic priorities and multilateral alignments.
  1. Evolving Trends in 21st Century

Era

Key Focus

Post-9/11

Strategic alliance with the US on counterterrorism

Post-2015

Pivot towards China and Russia

Post-2019

Kashmir diplomacy intensified after India’s moves

Current Era

Balance between economic diplomacy and strategic autonomy

Recent Challenges

FATF greylisting, Afghanistan’s fallout, US-China rivalry

  1. Conclusion

Pakistan’s foreign policy is shaped by a complex web of geostrategic compulsions, ideological beliefs, economic dependencies, and regional security dynamics. To ensure long-term sovereignty and prosperity, Pakistan must diversify its alliances, focus on economic diplomacy, and maintain strategic autonomy while promoting peaceful regional coexistence.

“A state’s foreign policy is only as strong as its economy and internal political coherence.”

Q. No. 8. Discuss the features of Turkish model of democracy keeping the distinguished position of the armed forces in Turkish politics.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. Historical Background of Turkish Democracy
  3. Key Features of the Turkish Model of Democracy
  4. Role of the Armed Forces in Turkish Politics
  5. Civil-Military Relations: Evolution Over Time
  6. Comparative Analysis: Turkey vs Other Democracies
  7. Challenges to Democratic Consolidation
  8. Conclusion
  1. Introduction

The Turkish model of democracy is a unique hybrid of secular republicanism, electoral pluralism, and military oversight, shaped by the legacy of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. While Turkey has regular democratic elections and civilian governance, the armed forces have historically enjoyed a powerful role as custodians of the secular state.

  1. Historical Background of Turkish Democracy
  • Republic of Turkey founded in 1923 by Atatürk, replacing the Ottoman Caliphate.
  • Introduced secularism, nationalism, and modernism as core principles.
  • Multiparty democracy began in 1950, but was interrupted by military coups in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997 (post-modern coup).
  • A failed military coup attempt in July 2016 redefined civil-military dynamics.
  1. Key Features of the Turkish Model of Democracy
  2. Secularism and Kemalism
  • Strong emphasis on secular governance, separation of religion from state.
  • Rooted in Kemalist ideology, emphasizing modernization, state control of religion, and Western orientation.
  1. Electoral Democracy
  • Turkey has held regular elections since 1950.
  • Political parties such as Justice and Development Party (AKP), Republican People’s Party (CHP) dominate national politics.
  • Introduction of direct presidential elections since 2014.
  1. Semi-Presidential to Presidential Shift
  • Transitioned from parliamentary democracy to executive presidency after the 2017 constitutional referendum.
  • The president now holds extensive executive powers, diminishing the role of the prime minister.
  1. Role of the Judiciary and Bureaucracy
  • Judiciary has acted both as a guardian of secularism and a tool for political control.
  • Bureaucratic elite traditionally aligned with the military and secular ideology.
  1. Political Islam and Democracy
  • Rise of political Islam through parties like AKP (Justice and Development Party).
  • AKP claims to blend Islamic conservatism with democratic values, but is often criticized for authoritarian tendencies.
  1. Role of the Armed Forces in Turkish Politics

Aspect

Details

Guardian Role

Turkish military sees itself as the protector of Kemalism and secularism.

Coups d’état

Military has intervened four times: 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997.

National Security Council (NSC)

Instrument of military oversight over civilian decisions.

Military Courts and Institutions

Previously had independent judiciary and budgetary autonomy.

Post-2016 Reforms

Erdogan curtailed military power, purged generals after failed coup.

The military’s presence in politics was constitutionally endorsed and socially legitimized until the early 2000s.

  1. Civil-Military Relations: Evolution Over Time

Pre-2000s: Dominance of the Military

  • Controlled key institutions, vetoed policies, banned parties (e.g., Welfare Party).
  • Army Chief often more powerful than elected PM.

2002–2016: Rise of Civilian Control under AKP

  • AKP reforms reduced military’s influence via EU integration demands and civil court supremacy.
  • Ergenekon and Sledgehammer trials prosecuted military elites.

Post-2016 Coup Attempt: Consolidation of Civilian Supremacy

  • Massive purge of military officers.
  • Military schools shut down; military placed under Ministry of Defence.
  • Erdogan centralized power in the presidency.
  1. Comparative Analysis: Turkey vs Other Democracies

Feature

Turkey

Typical Liberal Democracies

Role of Military

Historically dominant

Strict civilian supremacy

Electoral System

Competitive, but party restrictions exist

Fully open, pluralistic

Executive Power

Presidential with strong control (post-2017)

Often balanced with legislature

Secularism

Strict (Kemalist) secularism

Varies: liberal secularism in most cases

Political Islam

Controversial presence, tolerated post-AKP

Mostly separated from governance

  1. Challenges to Democratic Consolidation
  2. Authoritarian Drift
  • Increased control of media, judiciary, and civil society by AKP government.
  • Accusations of election manipulation and human rights violations.
  1. Ethnic and Regional Divides
  • Kurdish issue remains unresolved; clashes with PKK impact internal politics.
  1. Polarization and Weak Institutions
  • Politics remains highly polarized between secularists and Islamists.
  • Weak checks and balances due to executive dominance.
  1. Conclusion

The Turkish model of democracy is distinguished by its oscillation between military dominance and civilian rule, shaped by secular-nationalist ideology and Islamic conservatism. While Turkey has made strides in democratic participation and institutional reform, challenges remain in balancing civil-military relations, safeguarding pluralism, and upholding rule of law.

“Democracy in Turkey is not a linear journey, but a pendulum swinging between Kemalist guardianship and populist rule.”

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