Q. No. 2: Define Social Control and Explain the Most Significant Steps to Attain Social Control in Society. Elaborate on the Most Functional Agencies to Maintain Social Control in Post-Industrial Societies.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Definition of Social Control
- Nature and Scope of Social Control
- Theoretical Foundations
- Types of Social Control
- Functions of Social Control
- Steps to Attain Social Control
- Functional Agencies of Social Control in Post-Industrial Societies
- Comparative Analysis: Traditional vs. Post-Industrial Mechanisms
- Case Studies & Real-World Examples
- Critical Analysis
- Conclusion
- Introduction
Social control is an essential feature of all human societies. As humans live in organized groups, they need mechanisms to regulate behavior, resolve conflicts, and preserve social order. Without social control, society would descend into chaos and deviance. From early tribal rules to modern surveillance states, social control has adapted to the socio-economic structures of its time. In post-industrial societies—characterized by digital communication, global interdependence, and complex institutions—social control becomes both more subtle and more pervasive.
- Definition of Social Control
Sociologists have offered numerous definitions of social control:
- Edward A. Ross (1901) first coined the term, defining it as:
“The system of devices whereby society brings its members into conformity with accepted standards of behavior.”
- Ogburn and Nimkoff define it as:
“The patterns of pressure which society exerts to maintain order and establish conformity.”
Thus, social control includes all the ways—formal and informal—through which a society promotes conformity to its rules, norms, and expectations.
- Nature and Scope of Social Control
- Universal Phenomenon: Exists in every society—tribal or modern.
- Dynamic: Varies across cultures and time periods.
- Dual Modes: Can be formal (laws, institutions) or informal (customs, peer pressure).
- Goal-Oriented: Aims at maintaining societal equilibrium, promoting conformity, and resolving deviance.
- Theoretical Foundations
Various sociological perspectives explain the phenomenon of social control:
- Structural Functionalism (Durkheim, Parsons)
- Social control ensures functional integration and harmony.
- Durkheim emphasized collective conscience:
“Without regulation, anomie would lead to moral disintegration.”
- Conflict Theory (Karl Marx, C. Wright Mills)
- Social control perpetuates the dominance of ruling classes.
- Laws and norms reflect elite interests, not shared values.
- E.g., imprisonment of working-class deviants vs. impunity for white-collar crimes.
iii. Symbolic Interactionism (G.H. Mead, Herbert Blumer)
- Social control is constructed through daily interactions and labeling.
- Howard Becker:
“Deviance is not the act itself but the reaction to it.”
- Types of Social Control
Type | Description | Examples |
Formal | Institutional and codified enforcement of norms | Laws, police, courts, policies |
Informal | Unwritten, socially enforced control | Family expectations, religious norms |
Positive | Rewards for conformity | Praise, promotion |
Negative | Punishments for deviance | Imprisonment, shaming |
Direct | Explicit coercion or supervision | Military discipline |
Indirect | Internalized values and guilt | Conscience, self-regulation |
- Functions of Social Control
- Maintains Social Order: Prevents chaos and disorder.
- Promotes Conformity: Aligns individual actions with societal expectations.
- Facilitates Socialization: Transmits culture, values, and norms.
- Resolves Conflicts: Provides formal channels like courts, police, and councils.
- Protects Status Quo or Enables Change: Can uphold tradition or initiate reform.
- Steps to Attain Social Control in Society
Achieving effective social control requires a strategic mix of direct enforcement and internalization of norms:
- Early Socialization
- The process of learning norms starts in childhood.
- Family: Primary agency for moral and emotional development.
- Education: Introduces civic responsibility and social ethics.
- Scholar Berger & Luckmann:
“Social reality is constructed and internalized via socialization.”
- Norm Codification
- Societies transform shared norms into laws and written codes.
- Examples: Penal codes, traffic rules, environmental laws.
iii. Reward and Punishment Mechanisms
- Ensures compliance via incentives and deterrents.
- Example: Tax breaks for compliance; fines for violations.
- Role of Opinion Makers
- Intellectuals, religious scholars, and celebrities shape public opinion.
- Example: Climate change campaigns by activists like Greta Thunberg.
- Mass Media and Public Discourse
- Frames social behavior and marginalizes deviance.
- Reinforces stereotypes, values, and ideologies.
- Surveillance and Monitoring
- CCTV, data collection, and AI tools monitor behavior.
- Reflects Foucault’s Panopticon:
“A state of conscious and permanent visibility that assures the automatic functioning of power.”
- Functional Agencies of Social Control in Post-Industrial Societies
In post-industrial societies (USA, Germany, Japan, South Korea), the structure of social control is highly formalized and technologically embedded.
- Legal System and Judiciary
- Core mechanism of control.
- Ensures rule of law, equality, and justice.
- Example: U.S. Civil Rights Act ensures racial equity through legal enforcement.
- Police and Security Agencies
- Enforce laws, maintain public order, and prevent crime.
- Use of forensic technology, cyber surveillance, body cams.
iii. Educational Institutions
- Promote civic responsibility, democratic values, and cultural pluralism.
- Teach conflict resolution, diversity, and patriotism.
- Example: Germany’s “Civic Education Program” post-Holocaust.
- Media and Social Media Platforms
- Set societal norms through narratives, trends, and digital activism.
- Also pose risks: spread of misinformation or digital mob justice.
- Workplaces and Bureaucracies
- Control behavior through regulations, contracts, and audits.
- Example: HR departments enforce sexual harassment policies.
- Technology and Data Surveillance
- Algorithms track behavior, shape choices, and restrict freedom.
- Zuboff’s Surveillance Capitalism:
“Behavioral data is commodified to predict and modify behavior.”
vii. Religious and Civil Society Organizations
- While weakened in some secular contexts, they still hold sway.
- NGOs, churches, and charities provide moral guidance and services.
- Comparative Analysis: Traditional vs. Post-Industrial Societies
Feature | Traditional Society | Post-Industrial Society |
Control Type | Informal, communal | Formal, bureaucratic |
Primary Agents | Family, elders, religion | Police, courts, media |
Social Ties | Strong, personal | Weak, impersonal |
Tools Used | Gossip, shame, religious sanctions | Law, surveillance, media campaigns |
Change Orientation | Conservative | Adaptive and pluralistic |
- Case Studies & Real-World Examples
- China’s Social Credit System
- Uses AI and big data to rate citizens’ behavior.
- Rewards include travel benefits; punishments include service bans.
- Critics call it “Orwellian”; others cite efficiency in governance.
- Scandinavian Prisons
- Focus on rehabilitation and human dignity.
- Low recidivism rates show that restorative control is more effective than punitive models.
- Pakistan’s Duality of Control
- Urban areas: formal police and courts.
- Rural areas: Jirgas and Panchayats still dominate.
- Result: Hybrid system with contradictions and human rights challenges.
- Critical Analysis
- Over-Reliance on Formal Control
Post-industrial societies risk becoming too dependent on law and surveillance. This can result in:
- Alienation (Marx): Individuals feel disconnected from systems.
- False conformity: People may obey externally but not internalize values.
- Digital Surveillance and Privacy
Foucault’s analysis remains relevant. Citizens are constantly watched—not just by governments but corporations. This leads to “soft authoritarianism”, even in democracies.
iii. Informal Control’s Resilience
Despite modernity, informal controls (e.g., online social norms, cancel culture) still influence behavior significantly.
- Inequality in Enforcement
Conflict theorists argue laws often protect elite interests:
“Laws are like spider webs through which the big flies pass and the little ones get caught.” — Honoré de Balzac
- Media’s Dual Role
While media informs and unifies, it can also:
- Spread moral panics (Stanley Cohen).
- Create echo chambers.
- Be manipulated for propaganda.
- Conclusion
Social control is indispensable for societal cohesion and continuity. As societies become more complex, the mechanisms of control evolve from intimate, informal structures to institutional and digital forms. In post-industrial contexts, functional control depends on a combination of efficient institutions, ethical surveillance, and civic responsibility. However, a critical balance must be maintained—too little control breeds anarchy, while excessive control suffocates freedom. The ideal model of social control integrates both values and vigilance, ensuring that social order is maintained without compromising democratic liberties and human dignity.
Q. No. 3: Define and Differentiate Social and Cultural Change. Discuss the Impediments to Change with Reference to the Resistance to Change in Pakistani Society and Culture.
Outline:
- Introduction
- Definition of Social Change
- Definition of Cultural Change
- Difference Between Social and Cultural Change
- Theoretical Perspectives on Social and Cultural Change
- Agents of Change
- Impediments to Change: A General Sociological View
- Resistance to Change in Pakistani Society and Culture
- Case Studies from Pakistan
- Critical Analysis
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Change is a natural and inevitable part of all societies. As societies evolve, so do their norms, values, structures, and institutions. However, change is neither linear nor uniformly accepted. Particularly in societies like Pakistan, which are deeply rooted in tradition and religion, change is often resisted or selectively embraced. Understanding the distinction between social change and cultural change, and analyzing the resistance to change, is essential to comprehending Pakistan’s sociological landscape.
- Definition of Social Change
Social change refers to significant alterations over time in behavior patterns, values, norms, and social structures of society.
According to Kingsley Davis:
“By social change is meant only such alterations that occur in social organizations—that is, structure and functions of society.”
Examples: Shift from feudalism to democracy, gender role transformation, urbanization.
- Definition of Cultural Change
Cultural change involves modifications in the way a society’s members interpret the world, including beliefs, values, art, language, religion, and norms.
According to W.F. Ogburn:
“Cultural change refers to the modification or transformation in the culture, both material and non-material.”
Examples: Adoption of Western clothing, transformation of marriage practices, integration of social media in communication.
- Difference Between Social and Cultural Change
Basis | Social Change | Cultural Change |
Definition | Changes in social structure & institutions | Changes in beliefs, values, customs |
Scope | Broader, institutional | Specific to traditions, norms |
Examples | Democracy, industrialization | Language shifts, media preferences |
Causation | Often caused by technology, politics | Can be both internal and external |
Time Scale | Often gradual | Can be rapid (especially in pop culture) |
Interrelationship | Interlinked; one may lead to the other | Interlinked; culture may resist/support change |
Key Insight: All social change implies cultural change, but not all cultural change leads to structural social change.
- Theoretical Perspectives on Change
- Evolutionary Theory (Comte, Spencer)
- Societies progress from simple to complex.
- Change is cumulative and directional.
- Conflict Theory (Marx)
- Change arises from class conflict.
- Elite resist change to preserve dominance.
iii. Functionalist Perspective (Parsons)
- Change is adaptive.
- Every part of society changes in response to others to maintain equilibrium.
- Diffusion Theory
- Cultural change happens through borrowing traits from other societies.
- Agents of Change
- Education – Enlightens individuals and instills modern values.
- Technology – Drives material culture change and social restructuring.
- Media – Disseminates new ideas and lifestyles.
- Legislation – Enforces new norms (e.g., marriage age laws).
- Urbanization – Breaks down traditional kinship structures.
- Globalization – Brings cross-cultural influence (e.g., Westernization).
- Civil Society – NGOs promoting women’s rights and minority inclusion.
- Impediments to Change: A General Sociological View
- Cultural Lag (Ogburn)
Material culture (tech, economy) advances faster than non-material culture (values, beliefs), causing friction.
- Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one’s culture leads to resistance against foreign influence.
iii. Traditionalism
Strong adherence to long-held customs and resistance to new norms.
- Illiteracy and Lack of Awareness
Without education, individuals may see change as a threat to identity.
- Fear of Unknown
Change brings uncertainty, which many resist due to psychological comfort in the status quo.
- Political and Religious Conservatism
Elites use tradition and religion as tools to prevent redistribution of power.
- Resistance to Change in Pakistani Society and Culture
Despite exposure to globalization and modernity, Pakistan’s socio-cultural fabric remains largely resistant to progressive change. This resistance manifests across various domains:
- Patriarchal Structure
- Gender equality initiatives are often resisted under religious or cultural pretexts.
- Fact: Pakistan ranks 145 out of 146 in the Global Gender Gap Index 2023 (World Economic Forum).
- Religious Conservatism
- Innovations are often labeled bid’ah (heresy).
- For instance, resistance to population control policies by certain religious factions.
iii. Feudal and Tribal Systems
- Particularly in rural areas, landowners control education, access to media, and marriage practices.
- Jirga system often resists state law (e.g., honor killings, child marriages).
- Educational Curriculum
- Emphasizes rote learning over critical thinking.
- National education policy slow to integrate modern sociology and ethics.
- Language and Identity Conflicts
- Opposition to the promotion of local languages (e.g., Sindhi, Balochi) or English-medium education is framed as cultural betrayal.
- Media Censorship
- Progressive themes in drama, cinema, or literature often face bans or public backlash.
vii. Resistance to Technological Integration
- E-governance, online education, and digital banking are slow to penetrate rural regions due to distrust and illiteracy.
- Case Studies from Pakistan
- Women Protection Bill (2006)
- Faced massive resistance from religious-political alliances.
- Accused of promoting “Western values” and undermining Shariah.
- Transgender Rights Bill (2018)
- Though progressive in spirit, its implementation has seen severe backlash from conservative quarters.
- Aurat March
- Annual feminist rally faces societal hostility, misinformation campaigns, and physical threats.
- Reflects resistance to changing gender norms.
- Polio Vaccination Resistance
- Due to conspiracy theories and religious misinformation, even life-saving medical interventions are resisted in tribal areas.
- Critical Analysis
While change is inevitable, its direction and pace depend on the society’s readiness. Pakistan presents a paradox of transition:
- Urban-Rural Divide: Urban centers like Karachi and Lahore embrace modernization, while rural Balochistan and Sindh cling to tribal traditions.
- State vs. Society: Laws exist for gender equality and education, but societal enforcement lags due to patriarchal norms and weak governance.
- Youth vs. Elders: Social media and global exposure have made Pakistani youth more progressive, yet family and community structures inhibit expression.
Sociologist Dr. Rubina Saigol argued:
“Pakistan’s ideological confusion—between Islamic nationalism and democratic modernity—hinders consistent reform.”
Moreover, cultural relativism must be respected, but not at the cost of basic human rights. Cultural change should be context-sensitive and community-driven, rather than externally imposed.
- Conclusion
Social and cultural change are fundamental processes shaping human progress. While intertwined, they are conceptually distinct and operate differently. In Pakistan, change is hindered by deep-rooted patriarchy, traditionalism, religious orthodoxy, and socio-political conservatism. However, change is not only possible but necessary—provided it is inclusive, gradual, and based on education, awareness, and participatory governance. For meaningful transformation, Pakistan must balance respect for cultural heritage with the embrace of rational progress and social justice.
Q. No. 4 Discuss Migration as a Social Phenomenon. Explain the Push and Pull Factors of Migration. Highlight the Impact of Brain Drain on the Economy of Pakistan in the Last Five Years.
Outline
- Introduction
- Understanding Migration as a Social Phenomenon
- Types of Migration
- Theoretical Perspectives on Migration
- Push and Pull Factors of Migration
- Migration Trends in Pakistan
- Brain Drain: Definition and Scope
- Causes of Brain Drain in Pakistan
- Impact of Brain Drain on Pakistan’s Economy (2019–2024)
- Case Studies and Statistics
- Critical Analysis
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Migration—the movement of individuals or groups from one place to another—is a historically rooted and globally relevant social phenomenon. It influences family structures, labor markets, cultures, and political systems. In Pakistan, migration is not only widespread but also deeply entangled with economic, social, and political issues. Especially alarming is the rise in brain drain, where educated and skilled individuals leave the country for better opportunities, leading to economic and developmental challenges.
- Understanding Migration as a Social Phenomenon
Migration is not merely a geographic or economic event—it is a multidimensional social phenomenon that reflects broader socio-political dynamics.
According to Sociologist Everett S. Lee:
“Migration is a permanent or semi-permanent change of residence that affects individual social relationships and societal structure.”
Sociological Dimensions of Migration:
- Alters family and kinship structures.
- Impacts gender roles and generational dynamics.
- Transforms urbanization and labor market patterns.
- Types of Migration
Type | Description |
Internal Migration | Within a country (e.g., rural to urban) |
International | Across borders (e.g., Pakistan to UAE) |
Voluntary Migration | Chosen for better opportunity |
Forced Migration | Due to conflict, natural disaster |
Temporary | Seasonal labor or student migration |
Permanent | Migration with intent to settle abroad |
- Theoretical Perspectives on Migration
- Functionalist Theory (Emile Durkheim)
- Migration fulfills needs of labor surplus and deficit areas.
- It balances population and economic gaps.
- Conflict Theory (Karl Marx)
- Migration serves capitalist interests by exploiting cheap labor.
- Brain drain perpetuates inequality between Global North and South.
iii. World Systems Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein)
- Core countries attract labor from periphery nations.
- Migration results from global economic hierarchies.
- Human Capital Theory
- People migrate to invest in their future via education and income.
- Loss of human capital leads to long-term developmental stagnation.
- Push and Pull Factors of Migration
Migration is driven by a combination of push (repelling) and pull (attracting) factors.
Push Factors (origin country issues):
- Unemployment and underemployment
- Poor health and education services
- Political instability and corruption
- Law and order deterioration
- Environmental degradation
- Ethnic or sectarian violence
Pull Factors (destination country attractions):
- Higher wages and better job opportunities
- Quality education and healthcare
- Political freedom and security
- Social mobility and lifestyle
- Immigration-friendly policies
Everett Lee’s Migration Model (1966) outlines that decisions are influenced by:
- Origin characteristics (push)
- Destination characteristics (pull)
- Intervening obstacles (e.g., visa restrictions)
- Migration Trends in Pakistan
Pakistan has a long-standing history of both internal and external migration:
- Overseas Pakistani population: Over 9 million globally.
- Major destinations: UAE, Saudi Arabia, UK, USA, Canada.
- Key driver: Economic necessity, especially for unskilled and semi-skilled labor.
- Recent trend: Surge in skilled professionals and students leaving for the West.
- Brain Drain: Definition and Scope
Brain drain refers to the emigration of highly educated and skilled individuals from their home country to another in pursuit of better opportunities.
UNESCO Definition:
“The emigration of trained and talented individuals from the country of origin to other countries, leading to a shortage of skilled labor in the home country.”
In Pakistan, brain drain has intensified since 2019, particularly among IT professionals, engineers, doctors, and academics.
- Causes of Brain Drain in Pakistan
- Lack of Economic Opportunities
- Low wages, poor working conditions.
- Youth unemployment rate: over 11% (Pakistan Economic Survey 2023–24).
- Political Instability
- Inconsistent governance and rising authoritarianism.
- Military-civilian conflicts erode policy continuity.
- Security Concerns
- Target killings of academics, journalists, and minorities.
- Religious extremism undermines safety for progressive thinkers.
- Educational Mismatch
- Disconnect between higher education and job market demands.
- Brain drain among PhD scholars due to limited research facilities.
- Global Recruitment
- Countries like Canada, Germany, and Australia offer immigration pathways for skilled professionals.
- Impact of Brain Drain on Pakistan’s Economy (2019–2024)
- Loss of Skilled Workforce
- Over 1.3 million Pakistanis left the country in the last five years (Bureau of Emigration & Overseas Employment, 2024).
- Among them: over 22,000 doctors, 10,000 engineers, and thousands of IT experts.
- Educational Investment Loss
- Public funds spent on subsidizing medical, engineering, and higher education do not yield domestic returns.
- Wasted investment in human capital.
iii. Weak Innovation Ecosystem
- Departure of researchers and tech professionals stunts scientific advancement.
- Poor contribution to global patents and innovation rankings.
- Healthcare System Pressure
- Shortage of doctors and nurses in rural and conflict-hit zones.
- Brain drain in the health sector worsens the healthcare crisis.
- Economic Slowdown
- Lack of skilled professionals reduces productivity and competitiveness.
- IT exports underperform despite huge potential.
- Social Impact
- Family disintegration, cultural alienation, and generational disconnect.
- Case Studies and Statistics
Case 1: IT Industry Migration
- According to PASHA (Pakistan Software Houses Association), nearly 5000 IT professionals migrated between 2020–2023.
- Many joined companies in Canada, UAE, and Germany.
- Result: $3 billion in potential tech exports lost due to talent shortage.
Case 2: Doctors Migration
- Pakistan Medical Association revealed over 30% of fresh medical graduates plan to work abroad.
- Saudi Arabia, UK, and Ireland actively recruit Pakistani doctors.
Case 3: Youth Exodus Post-2022
- Political and economic instability post-regime change in 2022 triggered an exodus.
- Over 750,000 Pakistanis left in 2023 alone—the highest in a single year.
- Critical Analysis
- Remittances ≠ Development
While overseas Pakistanis sent $30 billion in remittances in FY2022, this is not a sustainable substitute for domestic talent retention. Remittances often:
- Are consumed (not invested).
- Don’t stimulate innovation.
- Don’t fix structural deficiencies in local institutions.
- Structural vs. Individual Rationality
Migrants act rationally for personal advancement, but their collective departure reflects structural failures in governance, economy, and policy.
iii. Policy Deficit
There’s no long-term retention policy for graduates, scientists, or innovators. Bonded scholarships or job guarantees are rare.
- Reversing Brain Drain into Brain Gain
- Countries like China and India have partially reversed brain drain by creating research parks, innovation hubs, and return incentives.
- Pakistan must adopt similar models to incentivize repatriation.
- Education–Employment Disconnect
The outdated curriculum and rigid degree structures don’t prepare youth for a globalized job market, exacerbating emigration.
- Conclusion
Migration is a dynamic social phenomenon driven by multiple socio-economic, political, and personal factors. While it offers opportunities for individuals and remittances for the home country, unchecked brain drain can severely hinder national development. In Pakistan, the last five years have witnessed a distressing surge in the migration of educated youth and professionals. The consequences—both immediate and long-term—threaten the nation’s competitiveness, public services, and innovation potential. Pakistan must now prioritize creating an enabling environment for talent retention by ensuring political stability, economic growth, and investment in research and development.
Q. No. 5: Explain the Structure and Functions of Pakistani Families with Practical Examples and Research-Based Arguments. What Do You See as the Future of the Pakistani Family System While Keeping in View the Social Changes Occurring in the Last Decade?
Outline
- Introduction
- Definition of Family
- Structure of Pakistani Families
- Functions of Pakistani Families
- Research-Based Observations
- Social Changes in Pakistan in the Last Decade
- Impact of Social Change on Family Structure and Roles
- Future of the Pakistani Family System
- Critical Analysis
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
The family, as a social institution, holds a central place in all societies. In Pakistan, the family is not only a unit of emotional bonding but also a vehicle for social order, economic cooperation, religious upbringing, and cultural continuity. However, with technological progress, urbanization, migration, and changing gender dynamics, the traditional family system in Pakistan is under visible transition. The evolving structure and functions of the family offer both opportunities and challenges for the future of Pakistani society.
- Definition of Family
Sociologist George Peter Murdock defines family as:
“A social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children.”
In the Pakistani context, family often includes not just parents and children but extended kin, in-laws, and multigenerational relatives—reflecting strong collectivist cultural patterns.
- Structure of Pakistani Families
Pakistani families predominantly follow a patrilineal, patriarchal, and extended structure, although changes are evident, particularly in urban centers.
- Extended Family System (Joint Family)
- Grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins live together or in close proximity.
- Common in rural and semi-urban areas.
- Male head (often grandfather or eldest son) wields authority.
- Nuclear Family System
- Consists of husband, wife, and their children.
- Becoming increasingly common in urban areas due to:
- Economic migration
- Housing constraints
- Increased education
iii. Patriarchal Authority
- Male figures (father/husband) have decision-making power.
- Women’s roles are largely domestic, though evolving in urban areas.
- Hierarchical Structure
- Age and gender define status.
- Respect and obedience are core values.
- Functions of Pakistani Families
The Pakistani family serves multiple roles:
- Socialization
- Primary agent for transmitting religious, moral, and cultural values.
- Teaches gender roles, language, and social etiquette.
- Economic Cooperation
- In rural setups, families are productive units (farming, labor).
- In urban areas, pooling of incomes in joint families provides economic resilience.
- Emotional Support
- Emotional security, identity, and belonging are fostered in family life.
- Family is often the first responder in times of illness, unemployment, or social crisis.
- Religious and Ethical Transmission
- Islamic teachings, prayer habits, and social ethics are passed through family.
- Elders often function as moral guardians.
- Marriage and Reproduction
- Arranged marriages are common and often involve kin selection.
- Family plays central role in match-making and marital negotiations.
- Care for the Elderly
- Culturally and religiously emphasized.
- Unlike the West, old age homes are rare and often stigmatized.
- Research-Based Observations
- Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) 2017–18
- 54% of Pakistani households are extended/joint families.
- Urban areas show a rising trend toward nuclear families.
- Gallup Pakistan 2021
- 63% of urban youth prefer nuclear family setup for greater autonomy.
iii. Dr. Rubina Saigol (Sociologist)
“Family in Pakistan functions as both a support system and a control system—especially for women.”
- UN Women (Pakistan 2022 Report)
- Over 82% of female domestic workers come from joint family households with high gender-based dependency.
- Social Changes in Pakistan in the Last Decade
- Urbanization
- Urban population grew from 35% in 2010 to over 40% in 2023.
- Urban nuclear families are on the rise due to space constraints and job mobility.
- Women Empowerment
- Female literacy rate increased from 46% to over 60%.
- More women in higher education and workforce—altering gender roles.
iii. Media and Globalization
- Satellite and digital media influence values and lifestyle.
- Rise in individualistic aspirations among youth.
- Migration
- Economic migration (especially to Gulf countries) leads to transnational families.
- Rise in Divorce Rates
- Especially in urban areas—Karachi reported over 11,000 divorce cases in 2022 alone.
- Technological Penetration
- Mobile phones, internet access, and social media affect relationship patterns and generational authority.
- Impact of Social Change on Family Structure and Roles
Social Change | Effect on Family System |
Urbanization | Shrinking household sizes, rise of nuclear families |
Women’s employment | Dual-income families, redefinition of gender roles |
Education | Delayed marriages, preference for autonomy |
Technology | Exposure to global cultures and liberal values |
Migration | Fragmented families, long-distance parenting |
Example: In Lahore and Islamabad, working couples increasingly opt for nuclear setups due to work schedules and autonomy.
- Future of the Pakistani Family System
While the traditional family system remains resilient, the future will likely witness a hybrid model, influenced by the following trends:
- Increase in Nuclear Families
- Economic realities and generational preferences favor smaller families.
- Urban centers will continue leading this transition.
- Redefined Gender Roles
- More equitable distribution of household responsibilities.
- Men participating in parenting and household management.
iii. Digital Parenting
- Technology will shape child-parent interactions, discipline, and socialization.
- Rise of “digital family culture.”
- Dual-Earner Households
- Economic necessity and women’s education will make dual-income families a norm.
- Elderly Care Crisis
- With smaller families and increased longevity, elderly care may emerge as a challenge.
- Demand for senior homes and geriatric services may rise.
- Shift in Marital Norms
- Delayed marriages, acceptance of love marriages, and rising divorce rates.
vii. Legal and Policy Changes
- Family courts, domestic violence laws, and women’s inheritance rights will strengthen individual protection within families.
- Critical Analysis
- Resilience vs. Rigidity
The Pakistani family has shown great resilience in adapting to political, economic, and cultural changes. However, it is often rigidly patriarchal and resistant to women’s autonomy, which may cause generational conflicts.
- Urban–Rural Divide
Transformation is faster in urban centers, while rural areas cling to tradition. This cultural dualism creates friction in national discourse on family values.
iii. Informal vs. Formal Support Systems
While families offer informal support, reliance on families alone has delayed the development of formal welfare institutions like daycare centers, nursing homes, and counseling services.
- Role of Religion and Culture
Religion continues to play a central regulatory role in family dynamics. However, its interpretation is often patriarchal, sidelining women’s rights under progressive Islamic jurisprudence.
- Media Influence
Dramas and films both reflect and shape family norms. While some progressive serials promote gender equity (e.g., Udaari), others reinforce stereotypes (e.g., Meray Paas Tum Ho).
- Conclusion
The Pakistani family system is in a state of evolution—caught between traditional collectivism and modern individualism. While the extended, patriarchal model still dominates, changing socio-economic patterns, education, gender equality movements, and globalization are reshaping its structure and functions. The future likely lies in a pluralistic, hybrid family system that blends tradition with modern values—provided that policy support, legal reform, and cultural flexibility align with these transformations. A forward-looking family system in Pakistan must prioritize empathy, equity, autonomy, and intergenerational dialogue to remain relevant in the 21st century.
Q. No.6: Explain the Concept of Urbanization, Which Is Rapidly Increasing Day by Day in Pakistan. How Can We Analyze the Two Most Significant Problems Associated with the Issue?
Outline
- Introduction
- Definition and Concept of Urbanization
- Theoretical Perspectives on Urbanization
- Urbanization Trends in Pakistan
- Drivers of Urbanization in Pakistan
- Positive Aspects of Urbanization
- Major Problems Associated with Urbanization
- In-Depth Analysis of Two Most Significant Problems:
a) Urban Housing Crisis
b) Environmental Degradation - Government Response and Policy Analysis
- Critical Analysis
- Conclusion
- References
1. Introduction
Urbanization has become one of the defining characteristics of contemporary Pakistani society. Cities are growing at unprecedented rates, driven by economic migration, population expansion, and the hope for a better standard of living. However, unplanned and rapid urban growth brings with it serious challenges—social, economic, and environmental. Understanding the concept of urbanization and its ramifications is essential for sustainable urban development in Pakistan.
2. Definition and Concept of Urbanization
Urbanization is the process through which increasing proportions of a population live in cities and urban areas, leading to the expansion of urban infrastructure, economy, and culture.
According to the United Nations (UN):
“Urbanization refers to the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas.”
In Pakistan’s context, it often implies not just migration to cities, but also the conversion of rural towns into urban centers without adequate planning or services.
3. Theoretical Perspectives on Urbanization
i. Functionalist Perspective (Durkheim, Tönnies)
- Urbanization brings organic solidarity, diversity, and interdependence.
- Ferdinand Tönnies: Shift from Gemeinschaft (community) to Gesellschaft (society).
ii. Conflict Theory (Marx)
- Urbanization promotes class divides.
- Elite capture of land and resources leads to slumification and inequality.
iii. Urban Ecology Theory (Park and Burgess)
- City zones evolve in concentric circles: central business district, transition zones, suburbs.
- Explains spatial and demographic changes.
iv. Modernization Theory
- Urbanization is seen as a sign of progress and development.
4. Urbanization Trends in Pakistan
- Urban Population Growth: From 32% (2000) to over 40% (2024).
- Projection: Over 50% urbanized by 2050 (UN Habitat).
- Fastest-Growing Cities: Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad-Rawalpindi, Faisalabad, Quetta.
- Rural to Urban Migration: Accounts for 36% of urban growth.
- Unplanned Expansion: 60% of urban dwellers live in informal settlements or katchi abadis.
5. Drivers of Urbanization in Pakistan
- Economic Migration: Rural youth seeking jobs in urban industries.
- Education and Healthcare: Cities offer better services.
- Natural Disasters: Floods and droughts displace rural populations.
- Infrastructure Investment: CPEC corridors and urban development projects.
- Conflict and Insecurity: Tribal and border area populations migrating to urban safe zones.
6. Positive Aspects of Urbanization
- Increases economic productivity.
- Expands education and health facilities.
- Encourages innovation and entrepreneurship.
- Promotes social mobility and diversity.
7. Major Problems Associated with Urbanization in Pakistan
Despite its benefits, unplanned urbanization has generated numerous problems:
Problem | Impact |
Housing shortages | Slums, homelessness |
Traffic congestion | Productivity loss, air pollution |
Environmental degradation | Waste, water, and air pollution |
Pressure on public services | Health, education, transport overstretched |
Unemployment and informality | Youth frustration, crime |
Urban poverty and inequality | Marginalization of urban poor |
Land mafias and illegal housing | Weak governance and corruption |
8. In-Depth Analysis of Two Most Significant Problems
A. Urban Housing Crisis
i. Overview
Pakistan’s cities face a severe housing shortage—especially for low-income groups. The demand for affordable housing is far outpacing supply.
- Estimated housing deficit: Over 10 million units (State Bank of Pakistan, 2023).
- Karachi alone has over 600 slums (Shehri-CBE report).
ii. Causes
- Land price inflation and elite capture of urban land.
- Lack of affordable housing finance.
- Bureaucratic hurdles in legal housing projects.
- Failure of government schemes like Naya Pakistan Housing Program to meet scale.
iii. Impacts
- Proliferation of katchi abadis and slums.
- Lack of access to clean water, sanitation, electricity.
- Social exclusion, insecurity, and vulnerability to eviction.
iv. Sociological Lens
Conflict theorists argue that:
“Urban land markets are structured to favor elites while pushing the poor into illegal or marginal spaces.”
v. Example
The Gulshan-e-Maymar project in Karachi serves middle and upper classes, while Orangi Town—one of Asia’s largest informal settlements—lacks proper sewerage.
B. Environmental Degradation
i. Overview
Urban expansion in Pakistan has come at a high environmental cost. Air, water, and land pollution have increased rapidly due to lack of planning and regulation.
ii. Evidence
- Lahore and Karachi consistently rank among the top 10 most polluted cities globally (IQAir 2023).
- Urban waste: Over 3 million tons of solid waste annually in Karachi alone.
- Water pollution from untreated industrial waste affects rivers like Ravi and Lyari.
iii. Causes
- Lack of environmental regulation enforcement.
- Vehicular emissions, construction, and industrial activity.
- Absence of urban green belts or eco-zones.
- Poor waste management infrastructure.
iv. Consequences
- Health crisis: Rise in respiratory illnesses, cancers, and vector-borne diseases.
- Urban heat island effect due to loss of trees.
- Water scarcity and contamination: 80% of water in major cities is unsafe (UNICEF 2023).
v. Case Example
Lahore Smog Crisis (2022–2023): Schools and offices were shut down due to hazardous air. The government declared a “health emergency,” yet long-term solutions remain absent.
9. Government Response and Policy Analysis
i. Naya Pakistan Housing Program
- Targeted low-income home ownership.
- However, implementation gaps, land availability, and affordability limited impact.
ii. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (1997)
- Framework exists but enforcement remains weak.
- Provincial EPAs underfunded and politically constrained.
iii. Urban Mass Transit Projects
- Metro Bus in Lahore, Orange Line Train.
- Partial success in reducing congestion but fails to address root causes like urban sprawl.
iv. Master Plans
- Karachi Master Plan 2020 expired; Lahore’s plans often violated.
- Encroachments and illegal housing societies undermine planning.
10. Critical Analysis
i. Urbanization ≠ Development
Without planning, urbanization leads to “urbanization of poverty”—where slums and unemployment rise rather than well-being.
ii. Elite-Centric Planning
Most policies benefit elite interests (e.g., gated communities, high-rise apartments) while neglecting working-class needs.
iii. Lack of Participatory Urban Governance
Urban residents—especially from low-income groups—are rarely consulted in development plans, deepening spatial injustice.
iv. Regional Disparities
While Punjab and Sindh are heavily urbanized, KP and Balochistan lack balanced urban development, leading to skewed migration patterns.
v. Missed Opportunities
Pakistan can learn from countries like:
- Turkey: Successful low-cost housing schemes.
- China: Special Economic Zones with eco-planning.
11. Conclusion
Urbanization is both an opportunity and a challenge. For Pakistan, the current trajectory reflects a reactive, rather than proactive approach to urban growth. As cities expand, the housing crisis and environmental degradation are becoming critical threats to urban sustainability, human health, and social cohesion. Effective urban planning, inclusive governance, enforcement of environmental laws, and prioritization of low-income housing are essential to mitigate these challenges. If addressed wisely, urbanization could be harnessed as a tool for inclusive growth and modernization in Pakistan.
Q. No.7: Explain the Sociological Model Developed by Talcott Parsons to Analyze the Functional Requirements of a Social System. How Can It Fit in Our Current Society?
Outline
- Introduction
- Talcott Parsons: The Architect of Structural Functionalism
- Key Concepts in Parsons’ Theory
- The AGIL Model: Functional Requirements of a Social System
a. Adaptation (A)
b. Goal Attainment (G)
c. Integration (I)
d. Latency (L) - Interdependence and Equilibrium in the Social System
- Application of AGIL Model to Modern Societies
- Fit of Parsons’ Model in Contemporary Pakistani Society
- Critical Analysis of the AGIL Model
- Conclusion
- References
- Introduction
Understanding how societies survive, function, and adapt to change has been a core concern of sociological theory. Among the foremost contributors to this inquiry is Talcott Parsons, whose AGIL model provides a systematic framework for analyzing the functional prerequisites of any social system. In an era of globalization, digital disruption, and social transformation, revisiting Parsons’ model offers insightful tools to assess modern society’s coherence and sustainability.
- Talcott Parsons: The Architect of Structural Functionalism
Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) was a leading American sociologist and a pioneer of structural functionalism, a macro-level theory that views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and harmony.
Parsons emphasized that society comprises interrelated structures (institutions) and functions (roles and norms) which collectively maintain social order.
“The social system is made up of the patterned interaction of actors whose relations and roles contribute to system equilibrium.”
— Talcott Parsons, The Social System (1951)
- Key Concepts in Parsons’ Theory
- Social System: A set of interrelated units (individuals/institutions) performing roles in harmony.
- Equilibrium: Stability is achieved through consensus and cooperation.
- Value Consensus: Shared values and norms hold society together.
- Role Expectation: Individuals perform socially expected roles for smooth functioning.
- The AGIL Model: Functional Requirements of a Social System
Parsons proposed the AGIL paradigm to describe four functional imperatives that every system must fulfill to survive and thrive:
Function | Meaning | Subsystem Responsible |
A — Adaptation | Adjusting to external environment | Economic System |
G — Goal Attainment | Setting and achieving objectives | Political System |
I — Integration | Harmonizing relationships within | Legal, Religious, and Social Institutions |
L — Latency (Pattern Maintenance) | Preserving values & norms | Family, Education, Culture |
- Adaptation (A)
A system must adapt to its environment and extract resources to meet its needs.
- Institutions involved: Economy, Technology, Labor market.
- In modern societies, rapid digitalization, AI integration, and global trade are examples of adaptation.
- Pakistan: The IT sector’s growth and adaptation to the gig economy reflects this function.
- Goal Attainment (G)
Society must define and achieve collective goals.
- Institution: Government and political leadership.
- Policies, laws, and resource allocation reflect societal goals.
- Pakistan: The state’s Vision 2025 agenda aimed at economic self-reliance represents this function.
- Integration (I)
Social order requires rules and mechanisms to mediate between individuals and groups.
- Institutions: Law, Judiciary, Religion, Civil society.
- These create coherence and prevent social disintegration.
- Pakistan: The judiciary and religious bodies play key roles, although integration is challenged by sectarianism and ethnic divides.
- Latency (L) or Pattern Maintenance
The system must preserve and transmit core values and norms.
- Institutions: Family, Education, Media, Religion.
- Socialization is central here.
- Pakistan: Madrassas and schools instill values; however, there is ideological polarization between secular and religious institutions.
- Interdependence and Equilibrium in the Social System
Parsons emphasized that these four functions are interdependent. Failure in one disrupts the entire system.
Example: If the education system (L) fails to inculcate civic values, political extremism (G) may rise, destabilizing integration (I).
He saw change as evolutionary—gradual adjustments among institutions ensure dynamic equilibrium.
- Application of AGIL Model to Modern Societies
- Adaptation in Globalized Economies
- Countries must constantly innovate and adapt to economic shifts.
- Example: South Korea’s transition from agrarian to tech-based economy.
- Goal Attainment in Democracies
- Vision-driven leadership and institutional accountability define success.
- Example: Scandinavian welfare states achieve collective well-being goals.
iii. Integration in Plural Societies
- Integration mechanisms prevent ethnic, racial, or class-based conflicts.
- Example: Canada’s multiculturalism policy fosters harmony among diverse communities.
- Latency in Culture and Education
- Civic education, media literacy, and family traditions ensure value continuity.
- Fit of Parsons’ Model in Contemporary Pakistani Society
Despite criticisms, Parsons’ model offers a valuable lens to assess Pakistan’s challenges and potentials.
- Adaptation in Pakistan
- The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture and remittances.
- Poor adaptation to climate change and digital economy.
- Example: Floods in 2022 revealed economic vulnerability due to lack of environmental planning.
- Goal Attainment Issues
- Political instability hinders national progress.
- Elite capture and lack of continuity in policies obstruct long-term goals.
- Example: Frequent government changes disrupt national development agendas.
- Weak Integration
- Ethnic, sectarian, and linguistic divides remain significant.
- State has struggled to create a unifying national narrative.
- Example: Conflicts in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa illustrate weak integration.
- Crisis in Latency Function
- Education system is fragmented into Urdu-medium, English-medium, and madrassa streams.
- Value transmission is inconsistent and ideologically divided.
- Example: Curriculum debates reflect a broader identity conflict.
- Critical Analysis of the AGIL Model
- Strengths
- Offers a holistic framework for analyzing institutional balance.
- Emphasizes stability and interdependence, vital for nation-building.
- Relevant for understanding institutional dysfunction.
- Limitations
- Overemphasis on order: Parsons underestimates conflict, protest, and revolution as agents of change.
- Static model: Does not account for abrupt or radical transformations (e.g., Arab Spring).
- Eurocentric bias: Assumes Western institutional structures as normative.
iii. In Pakistan’s Context
- Over-formalization of institutions (e.g., rigid bureaucracy) doesn’t always reflect ground realities.
- Civil society and informal networks often fill in gaps left by formal institutions.
- Social change in Pakistan is non-linear—often marked by sudden political shifts, grassroots movements, and religious mobilizations.
“Parsons’ framework is neat and elegant, but the messiness of developing societies often escapes its structural neatness.”
— Dr. Akbar S. Ahmed, Pakistani sociologist and anthropologist
- Conclusion
Talcott Parsons’ AGIL model remains a seminal contribution to sociological theory. By identifying four functional imperatives—Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency—Parsons provides a framework to assess the health and sustainability of any society. While modern societies, including Pakistan, operate in complex and rapidly changing contexts, the AGIL model continues to offer useful insights into institutional strengths and dysfunctions. However, it must be complemented with conflict-based, post-structuralist, and context-sensitive approaches to fully grasp the dynamic realities of contemporary social life.
Q. No.8: Short Notes:-
(a). Qualitative Research in Sociology
1. Introduction
Qualitative research is a critical methodology in sociology that focuses on understanding human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural experiences through non-numerical data. Unlike quantitative methods that measure and generalize, qualitative research seeks depth, meaning, and interpretation in the social world. It is particularly useful for uncovering the why, how, and in what context behind social actions.
2. Definition
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005):
“Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive practices that make the world visible.”
3. Key Features of Qualitative Research
- Subjective Understanding: Focus on individual perspectives and lived experiences.
- Natural Setting: Conducted in real-world environments rather than laboratories.
- Open-ended Inquiry: Emergent, not rigidly structured.
- Rich Descriptions: Narrative and detailed account of social processes.
- Inductive Reasoning: Theories emerge from data, not imposed on it.
4. Common Qualitative Methods in Sociology
Method | Description | Example Use Case |
Participant Observation | Researcher immerses in social setting | Studying behavior in Sufi shrines |
In-depth Interviews | Semi-structured conversations | Exploring women’s roles in tribal areas |
Focus Groups | Group discussions to gather diverse views | Urban youth opinions on feminism |
Case Studies | Deep analysis of single cases or communities | Analysis of bonded labor in Sindh |
Ethnography | Cultural immersion and narrative account | Life of transgender communities |
Content Analysis | Interpreting textual or media content | Analyzing TV portrayals of masculinity |
5. Theoretical Underpinnings
- Symbolic Interactionism (Mead, Blumer): Emphasizes interaction and meaning-making.
- Interpretivism: Social reality is constructed, not objective.
- Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss): Theory should emerge from data, not precede it.
6. Strengths of Qualitative Research
- Captures complex, context-specific phenomena.
- Allows understanding of marginalized voices (e.g., minorities, women, disabled).
- Produces rich, narrative data useful for policy and intervention.
- Encourages reflexivity and continuous learning.
7. Limitations
- Subjectivity and Bias: Interpretation may vary between researchers.
- Limited Generalizability: Small sample sizes prevent broad claims.
- Time-consuming: Data collection and analysis take longer.
- Difficult to replicate: Due to dynamic and evolving contexts.
8. Use in Pakistani Context
Qualitative research is essential for exploring:
- Gender norms in conservative societies.
- Religious behavior and sectarian identity.
- Ethnic politics in urban Pakistan.
- Informal labor markets, e.g., domestic workers, street vendors.
Example:
Dr. Rubina Saigol’s qualitative studies on women’s education in Pakistan offer critical insights into patriarchal resistance and educational inequalities.
9. Conclusion
Qualitative research in sociology is not merely an alternative to quantitative methods—it is a powerful, context-sensitive tool for understanding the depth and diversity of human social life. In societies like Pakistan, where culture, religion, and tradition play pivotal roles, qualitative methodologies provide essential pathways to capture lived realities, social suffering, and resistance to change.
Q7(b). Deviance and White-Collar Crime in Pakistan
1. Introduction
Deviance refers to behavior that violates the accepted norms and rules of a society, while white-collar crime represents a specific category of deviance committed by individuals in high-status positions during the course of their occupation. In Pakistan, both phenomena are on the rise, particularly as institutions grow weaker, and accountability mechanisms falter.
2. Definitions
- Deviance:
As per Howard Becker:
“Deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of the application of rules.”
- White-Collar Crime:
As defined by Edwin Sutherland (1939):
“A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation.”
3. Types of Deviance in Pakistan
Type | Examples |
Cultural Deviance | Gender non-conformity, Western clothing |
Legal Deviance | Theft, smuggling, tax evasion |
Religious Deviance | Sectarian views, blasphemy accusations |
Moral Deviance | Cohabitation, social media trolling |
4. Nature of White-Collar Crimes in Pakistan
Sector | White-Collar Crimes |
Politics | Corruption, nepotism, misuse of authority |
Business | Tax evasion, fraud, money laundering |
Banking | Loan default, insider trading |
Medical | Overcharging, fake degrees, quackery |
Education | Ghost schools, fake certificates |
5. Causes of Deviance and White-Collar Crime
- Weak Legal Framework: Laws exist but enforcement is selective.
- Lack of Moral Education: Failure of socialization agents like family, school.
- Corruption in Institutions: Normalization of unethical behavior.
- Inequality and Greed: Relative deprivation breeds criminal ambition.
- Political Patronage: Protects elites from prosecution.
6. Sociological Theories on Deviance
i. Strain Theory (Merton)
When societal goals (wealth, status) are inaccessible through legitimate means, people turn to deviance.
ii. Labeling Theory (Becker)
People become deviant when labeled so, regardless of actual behavior.
iii. Conflict Theory (Marx)
Laws are made by elites to protect their interests; white-collar crime often goes unpunished.
7. Case Examples in Pakistan
- Panama Papers (2016): Exposed offshore holdings of political elites.
- Fake Degree Scandal (Axact): Corporate-level white-collar fraud targeting global markets.
- Housing Scams: Bahria Town land encroachments and unauthorized real estate development.
- Bank of Punjab Loan Scam: Billions embezzled by top executives with political backing.
8. Impacts on Pakistani Society
- Erosion of Trust: Citizens lose faith in institutions.
- Normalization of Corruption: Ethical boundaries become blurred.
- Economic Drain: Billions lost due to tax evasion and capital flight.
- Justice Gap: Poor jailed for petty crimes, while elites escape prosecution.
9. Strategies to Address White-Collar Crime
- Strengthening NAB and FIA: Independent and depoliticized operations.
- Digitalization: Reduce discretionary power through transparent processes (e.g., e-filing taxes).
- Public Awareness Campaigns: Change perception that corruption is “normal.”
- Educational Reforms: Civic and moral education in schools and universities.
- Judicial Reforms: Speedy trials, whistleblower protection, and asset recovery laws.
10. Conclusion
Deviance and white-collar crime are socially constructed and shaped by power dynamics, culture, and institutional decay. In Pakistan, these issues reflect broader systemic dysfunctions rooted in inequality, impunity, and moral disengagement. Combating these forms of deviance requires institutional reform, civic awareness, and accountability at all levels. Only then can Pakistan hope to establish a just, law-abiding, and morally coherent society.
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